4. The interconnection between phonetics and phonology
1. Phonetics as a science. It’s aims and significance.
English like other natural language is based on sounds which are combined to form longer units such as syllables, words, word combinations, sentences and text.
Nowadays in comparison with prior times more attention is paid to teaching pronunciation and spoken language on the whole. So, phonetics is characterized as the study of spoken language or the study of speech sounds.
It includes the systematic classification of spoken sounds: according to the way they are pronounced by organs of speech, according to the way they are transmitted from the speaker to the listener and according to how they sound to the listener.
Students of the faculty of foreign languages must realize how to utter sounds correctly and how to arrange them in words and sentences to be understood by other speakers-this is a practical aspect of phonetics. Practical or normative phonetics is concerned with material form of phonetic phenomena.
The aims of the normative course are predominantly practical, namely:
1 to help the students master the norms and standards of the language studied in the matter of its sounds, word stress and intonation;
2 to help acquire basic knowledge of theory phonetics, both general and of the language studied;
The course of theoretical phonetics pursues the following aims:
1 to refresh and enlarge the knowledge of general and special phonetics and bring it up to date (or to update the knowledge)
2 to acquaint the students with the successes achieved by both russian and foreign linguists in developing the phonetic science.
3 to acquaint the students with modern methods of phonetic and phonemic investigation. It is important for teacher, would be teachers especially, because the teacher must be sure that what he teaches is linguistically correct and must try to work out a truly scientific approach to the material, he teaches both in general and particular.
The course of theoretical phonetics sets rather the task of showing how the phonetic units function in the language, not in speech. Simultaneously, theoretical phonetics restricts itself to regarding phonetic phenomena synchronically, without any special attention paid to the historical development of English. So, phonetics being a linguistic discipline studies the sound system of the language, but unlike other linguistic branches it studies not only the linguistic features but the physical nature of the sound matter-that is the work of the speech operators (articulatory phonetics) as well as acoustic characteristics of sound phenomena and their perception or audition in perception.
Specialists in phonetics may use such instruments as:
- a hand mirror
- a laryngoscope
- artificial palate
- practical representation of sounds
- photographs
- X-ray photographs and cd-records
- Tv and computer classes are also very helpful for investigation and study of the articulatory aspect of speech.
- Special laboratory equipment, such as kymograph=cymograph, spectrograph, oscillograph, and intonograph help to obtain the necessary data about prosodic properties of speech sounds.
The phonological or functional properties of phonemes, syllables and intonation are investigated by means of special linguistic methods, which help to interpret them as socially significant elements.
Theoretically phonetics is primarily concerned with the expression level, because no linguistic study can be made without detailed consideration of the material on the expression level, so it is obliged to take the content level into account to consideration for only meaningful sound sequences are regarded as speech.
Theoretically significance of phonetics is connected with the further development of the synchronic study and description of the phonetic system of a national language, the comparative analysis and description of different language, the study of the correspondence between them, the diachronic description of successive changes in the phonetic system of a language or different languages.
Practical significance of phonetic is connected with teaching foreign languages. Practical phonetics is applied in methods of speech correction, teaching deaf-mutes, film dubbing, transliteration, radio and television.
2. The branches of Phonetics.
Phonetics provides a description of
how sounds are produced by the speech organs (articulatory phonetics);
how they are perceived by hearers (auditory phonetics);
how they are transmitted from the speaker to the hearer (acoustic phonetics);
how they function in the language (functional phonetics).
The branch of phonetics that studies the way in which the air is set in the mouth, the movements of the speech organs and the coordination of these movements in the production of single sounds and trains of sounds is called articulatory phonetics.
Acoustic phonetics studies the way in which the air vibrates between the speaker’s mouth and the listener’s ear.
The branch of phonetics investigating the hearing process is known as auditory phonetics. Its interests lie more in the sensation of hearing, which is brain activity, than the physiological working of the ear or the nervous activity between the ear and the brain. The means by which we discriminate sounds – quality, sensations of pitch, loudness, length, are relevant here. This branch of phonetics is of great interest to anyone who teaches or studies pronunciation.
Functional phonetics - Studies the way in which sound phenomena function in a particular language, how they are utilized in that language and what part they play in manifesting the meaningful distinctions of the language. So this is the branch of phonetics that studies the linguistic function of consonant and vowel sounds, syllabic structure, word accent and prosodic features, such as pitch, stress and tempo. In linguistics, function is usually understood to mean discriminatory function, that is, the role of the various elements of the language in the distinguishing of one sequence of sounds, such as a word or a sequence of words, from another of different meaning. The basic method is commutation or substitution (замены), substituting sounds in different environments.
Besides the four mentioned above branches there are other divisions of Phonetics. We may speak of general phonetics and the phonetics of a particular language (special or descriptive phonetics). General phonetics studies all the sound-producing possibilities of the human speech apparatus and the ways they are used for purpose of communication. Descriptive phonetics studies the contemporary phonetic system of the particular language, i.e. the system of its pronunciation, and gives a description of all the phonetic units of the language. Descriptive phonetics is based on general phonetics.
Linguists also distinguish historical phonetics whose aim is to trace and establish the successive changes in the phonetic system of a given language at different stages of its historical development.
Comparative phonetics whose aims are to study the correlation between the phonetic systems of two or more languages, especially kindred ones, and find out the correspondence between the speech sounds of kindred languages.
Phonetics can also be represented by interdisciplinary branches:
1 Phonostylistics which studies the stylistic aspects of sounds (Соколова)
2 There existed a number of phonetics branches which represent the combination of dates, derived from different sciences. For instance, phonetics and psychology which results in psychophonetics as a part of psycholinguists.
3 Social phonetics as a part of social linguistics in which two disciplines mixed: phonetics and sociology.
Phonetics can also be theoretical and practical.
1.Practical, or normative, phonetics that studies the substance, the material form of phonetic phenomena in relation to meaning.
2.Theoretical phonetics, which is mainly concerned with the functioning of phonetic units in language.
Phonetics is itself divided into two major parts: segmental phonetics, which is concerned with segmental units (phonemes, allophones) and suprasegmental phonetics (word stress, syllabic structure, rhythmic organization, intonation, sentences, phrases, textes)
All the branches of phonetics are closely connected not only with one another but also with other branches of linguistics. Phonetics is also connected with many other sciences. Acoustic phonetics is connected with physics and mathematics. Articulatory phonetics is connected with physiology, anatomy, and anthropology. Historical phonetics is connected with general history of the people whose language is studied; it is also connected with archaeology.
3. THE CONNECTION OF PHONETICS WITH OTHER BRANCHES OF LINGUISTICS AND NON-LINGUISTIC SCIENCES.
Phonetics is an independent branch of linguistics like lexicology, grammar and stylistics. It studies not only separate sounds but their functions as well. It also studies the relation between written and spoken language. Phonetics is connected with other, non-linguistic sciences: acoustics, physiology, psychology, logic, etc.
1. Orthography
Phonetics formulates the rules of pronunciation for separate sounds and sound combination. The rules of reading are based on the relation of sounds to orthography.
-one letter can be read in different ways: a {ei, , a:, }
-letter combinations are wildly used to represent vowels and consonants.
2 Grammar
Through the system of rules of reading Phonetics is connected with grammar and helps to pronounce correctly singular and plural forms of nouns, the past tense forms and past participles of English regular verbs (ex. /d/ is pronounced after voiced consonants (beg-begged) and /t/ - after voiceless consonants (wish-wished), /id/ -after /t/ (want-wanted))
–sound interchange is another manifestation of the connection of Phonetics with grammar. For instance, this connection can be observed in the category of number. Thus, the interchange of /f-v/ , /s-z/, helps to differentiate singular and plural forms of such nouns as : calf-calves, bath-baths, house-houses.
-connected with the tense forms of irregular verbs: sing-sang-sung
-phonetics connected with grammar through its intonation component, for instance the rising nuclear tone may serve to show that it’s a question in a different sentence: he came home. – He came home?
3. Phonetics is also connected with lexicology. It is only due to the presence of stress or accent in the right place, that we can distinguish certain nouns from verbs (formed by conversion) (ex. ‘abstract (реферат) – to ab’stract (извлекать), ‘object (предмет) - to ob’ject (возражать))
-homographs 
can be differentiated only due to pronunciation, because they are identical in spelling: wind-ветер wind (вайнд)завиток
4. Phonetics is also connected with stylistics through intonation of words, phrases, sounds. Repetition of this kind serves the basis of rhythm, rhyme and alliteration.
Rhythm-regular recurrence of accents elements. A word may be used as a special poetry, but in a prose as well.
Alliteration – the repetition of identical or similar sounds, helps to impart a melodic effect to the utterance and to express certain emotions.
Rhyme-the repetition of the words such say may
Phonetics is connected with non-linguistic sciences such as acoustics, phonology, logic…
It is also connected with such disciplines as: paralinguistic, psychology, psycholinguistics, sociology, sociolinguistics, dialectology….
-phonetics is extremely useful in such questions and problems:
Historical aspect of L
Dialectology
Questions involving the spelling or pronunciation of personal names or words borrowed from other L-s
4. THE INTERCONNECTION BETWEEN PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY
The sound matter of the language can be analyzed either from the physical and physiological point of view or from the functional one, which largely determines the distinction between Phonetics and Phonology, though the latter can be also defined and realized as Functional Phonetics. So phonetics studies sounds as articulatory and acoustic units, while phonology investigates sounds as units, which serve communicative purposes – that is those sounds which can fulfill the distinctive function.
Also the distinction between phonetics and phonology raises from the recognition of the fact that some sounds are structurally relevant whereas others are not. It means that some particular sounds in speech which phonetics traditionally represents (for instance non-aspirated p in Spain are not structurally important, because in this case the variants can not filfull the distinctive function – the subdivision of the non-aspirated p by aspirated p can not affect the meaning. In other words only functionally relevant sounds can become the object of investigation in phonology.
Фонология была основана как попытка противостоять излишествам фонетики. Фонетика изучает звуки, как явление.
Фонетика pain - Spain
Фонология pain – main
Phonetics and phonology may be interpreted as two different levels of abstraction at which linguistic analysis of the sound system is carried out. Phoneticians are mainly interested in the analysis of the physical implementation of sound units, whereas phonologists are mainly involved in the study of structurally and functionally relevant phenomena.
The distinction between phonetics and phonology may be also defined in terms of the dichotomies between language and speech. Phonology lies in the domain of language, but not speech; phonetics, on the other hand, lies both in the domain of speech and language. So it is essential to distinguish between speech sounds, language sounds and phonemes as units of phonetics and phonology.
Thus we can conclude that the basic principles of phonological analysis are equivalent to the distinctions between:
1. paradigmatics (may be defined as L structure based on associative relationship) and syntagmatics (as well as L structure based on linear relationship)
2. Syntagmatics deals with paradigmatics and syntagmatics of phonemes which otherwise may be called segmental units; and supersegmantics deals with paradigmatics and syntegmatics of supersegmental units such as stress, accent and intonation which manifest themselves within syllables, words, word-groups and sentences. As for L is to be understood as the structure of a given L, whereas the most reasonable conception of speech is that of a text, spoken or written.
The interconnection between phonetics and phonology is simple and transparent, on the one hand, and complex and manifold, on the other. The topic is highly controversial and is based on stereotypes and prejudices, which are hard to overcome:
1 phonology is a part of phonetics, not vice versa
2 phonology is no less concrete than phonetics, no matter how for the analyzed segment or sound sequence is from the actual phonetic presentation.
3 natural phonological process cannot be explained exclusively through phonetic analysis, with reference to phonetic phenomena, or characteristics.
4 the role of anthrophoneticsn (in terms of articulatory and auditory) should not be overestimated
5 phonetics must be viewed upon as a material basis for the phonological upper –storey or super structure, which represents phonetic phenomena as a higher degree of abstraction. The connection between the basis and the superstructure is rather reciprocal. Being a derivative of phonetics, phonology can hardly be regarded as a mere reflection of it.
So, we can make conclude be saying that phonetics is an explanatory science not due to its own possibilities only, but due to specific paradigmatic and syntagmatic system in the L system the knowledge of which only phonology can supply.
Consequently, neither phonology fully deserves the little of being abstract phonetics nor phonetics can be truly called concrete phonology, that it is wise to say that it is on the border between phonetics and phonology that sound patterns are found.
5. The subject-matter of phonology.
The PN - unit of Ph. But to be able to characterize sounds from the linguistic point of view we should analyze the functional aspect of speech sounds, i.e. to study PNs which mean sounds in their contrastive sense, as well as APs as variants of PNs & structurally differ.iate between them. APs usually occurs in differ. environments & can neither contrast with each other nor make meaningful distinctions. In brief: PNs are mutually distinctive speech sounds, while APs are variants of one & the same position. The key problem of Ph. – to establish the set of relevant sounds. When achieving the purpose of comparing sounds we have to answer the “?”: “Is it the same sound or a differ. one?” E.g.: keIt – skeIt; paI – spaI. They are the same (aspirated & non-asp. [k] & [p]) they appear in differ. P. context & never compete with each other (because of their placement) & belong to APs of the particular PN. E.g.: skaI – spaI. They are differ. because they occur in the same context & cause a change in meaning of words. The other problem of Ph. – to determine the phonological status of sounds. The method of minimal pairs is used here (used only by phonologists) which represent the semantic approach the properties of PNs. The method consists in finding at least 1 pair of words which are differ. in respect of this sounds. E.g.: [pIt] – [bIt].
PN - phoneme, Ph. - phonology, P. - phonetics, AP - allophone
6. The main achievements in the historical development of phonology.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF PHONOLOGY.
The founder of the phoneme theory was the Russian scientist I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay (1845-1929). He did a lot in the study of phonemic alterations and was the first linguist who demanded accurate distinction between synchronic and diachronic approach to phonemic investigation.
His activity is usually divided into two periods:
1. morphological approach to the definition of the phoneme, when he was chiefly interested in the entity of the phoneme. He said that the same phoneme wasn’t always represented by the same combination of sounds (can serve the alteration of voiced and voiceless consonants within morpheme – ex. Луг – луга) According to Courtney the intention of the speaker and physical nature of sounds don’t always go inside. During this period he characterized the phoneme as the perception of sound.
Trubezkoy was influenced by Courney’s theory and his arch phoneme is practically based on Courtey’s morphological theory of the early period.
2. The change was caused by his psychological approach to the phoneme which he characterized as a fictious unit, an invention of the scientists.
It is a complex perception of the articulatorymovements and of the muscular sensations, connected with them together with the resulting acoustic impressions. This complex perception is THE PHONEME. Courtney’s phoneme theory was known to few linguists, namely through the works of his pupils, Kruscherskii and Shcherba and it was thoroughly analyzed and gained popularity only after 1928 when the first international congress took place at the Hague and especially when Trubezkoy’s monograph appeared in which he propounded his own theory.
V.Ya. Plotkin suggests two dichotomies:
1. Kinakemic system consists of two sub-systems: vocalic and consonantal, which are not rigidly separated.
2. All kinakemes are divided into two categories: modal and locational.
Modal kinakemes are concerned with the origin of sounds and the vertical dimensions of the vocal tract.
1)Obstruction: a) occlusion, b) constriction
2) Phonal: a) sonority, b) discordance
Consonantal modal kinakemes determine the mode of obstruction and the acoustic type of sound-tone or noise, their vocalic kinakemes deal with the height of the vocal tract.
Locational kinakemes : vocalic and consonantal function on their horizontal plane, activating certain areas along the vocal tract.
1) Articulatory: a) prelinguality, b) postlinguality
2) Pointal: a) prealveolarity, b) postalveolarity
I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay’s views were later developed and perfected by his disciple L.V. Shcherba, who separated phonetics from phonology and stated that sounds are not only articulatory and acoustic units but that they also possess functional properties. L.V.Shcherba stated that in actual speech we utter a much greater variety of sounds than we are aware of ; in every language these sounds are united in a comparatively small number of sound types, which are capable of distinguishing the meaning and the forms of words, that is they serve the purpose of social intercourse. Such sound types are called phonemes.
Professor Shcherba created a materialistic phoneme theory/
1) PRE-REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD
Is characterized by strong influence of Courney’s view upon Shcherba.
Definition of the phoneme is mentalist.
The PHONEME is the shortest generic phonetical perception capable of being associated with semantic perceptions, of distinguishing words, of being easily isolated from the word. He was the first to advance the idea o f the distinctive function of phonemes. The principal points of Shcherba’s phoneme theory.