III . Дополнительный материал для изучения теоретических вопросов
1. Intonational Peculiarities of Reading Fairy - Tales
Tales occupy a somewhat intermediate position between the so-called oral and written types.
Tapes all round the world have certain similarities in their structure. They usually begin and end with a specific embellishment, the beginning of each presents a series of typical formulas. For instance, many English tales begin with the words: "once upon a time there..." The so-called "binary oppositions" are typical of all tales. Good is opposed to Bad, Genuine to False, etc. Alongside with this binary principle, the principle of thrice-repeated actions or phenomena exists in this structure of the plot of the tale. The classical example of this is the trembling of characters and actions: three brothers, three helpers, etc. Compositionally this trembling serves the aim of breaking the development of the plot.
Originally tales existed in oral forms. Nowadays when many tales are published the forms of realization are various.
Tales can be read, told and even dramatized. The variety of realization and the variety of the plot determine the variety of intonational characteristics.
1. The division into sense-group depends on the type of the text. The narrative part reveals features common with the descriptive prose. The number of stressed words in most cases varies from two to four. In the dialogical parts the sense-groups are shorter (from one to three stressed words).
2. In the narrative part the tonic contour of a sense-group often consists of a Falling Tone and a Gradually Descending Scale. In non-final sense-groups the Rising Tone is more frequent than in the descriptive prose.
In the dialogical parts complex tones are often used. The tonic contour is characterized by more pitch fluctuations.
3. The Decentralized Stress is prevailing in the narrative part. The Centralized Stress is more frequent in the dialogical parts.
4. The rhythmic organization of tales depends greatly on the syntactical and compositional structure of it.
In the narrative part simple rhythm based on the isochronism of rhythmic groups is more common. Sense-groups characterized by a similar tonic structure constitute a periodicity which contributes to the rhythm organization.
Repetitions (lexical and syntactical) which are frequent in tales play an important role in rhythmization. In some tales a regular alternation of descriptive and dialogical parts produces a peculiar rhythm of units higher than a sentence.
Some tales are built on similar repetitions (syntactical, lexical and intonational).
Many tales contain poetic pieces. The combination of prose and verse rhythm produces the rhythmic structure which is in keeping with the plot.
5. The tempo in the narrative part is rather slow and often constant. The tempo of the dialogue is quicker and often changeable.
6. Logical pauses are prevailing in reading or telling tales as the narrator knows the plot well.
2. Intonation Peculiarities of Poetry (Verse-reading / Verse-speaking)
It is common knowledge that a poetic piece permits a great variety of interpretations. At least two types of interpretations can be distinguished: the so-called authorial (the interpretation of the poet himself) and non-authorial (belonging to anyone else).
The poet usually emphasizes the rhythmic organization of the poem, which is accompanied by a monotone. The author's reading usually strikes as a monotonous one. Strictly organized rhythm is the main means of emotional expression.
Non-authorial interpretation consists in conveying the idea of the poem not only through rhythm but other means too (melody, stress, tempo).
Learners of English often find the reading of English poems difficult. Highly emotional poems seem to have no particular intonational characteristics. One may think that the interpretation of a poem depends entirely on the reader. But the reader is expected to express not only his own thoughts and emotions but those which are offered by the author. Besides the form itself limits the number of interpretations.
The main peculiarities of poetry consist in the following: the poetic text is built on a regular repetition of similar and isochronous units – lines. The line is the main lexico-grammatical and intonational unit of poetry. The line that contains more than six syllables is usually divided into two or more sense-groups. Lines constitute a stanza, which is a higher unit of verse.
Some phonetic peculiarities of verse-reading:
1. Poetry is characterized by a wide use of simple tones: slow falling tones (which are usually smooth and don’t reach the lowest possible pitch level), rising tones and levels. The Level Tone is often combined with the High Level Scale. This pattern gives a somewhat sole character to the utterance.
2. Falling and Rising Tones are usually preceded by descending or ascending pitch movement.
3. The following compound tones are most typical: Fall+Fall, Fall+Level, Rise+Fall.
4. Rhyming words are usually pronounced with the same tone.
5. If the line is divided into two sense-groups, the second is often lower in pitch than the first.
6. The line usually ends in a pause (if there is no enjambment). In general pauses play a great role in verse-reading, they divide the poem into lines and stanzas, the lines into sense-groups. Pauses are syntactical and logical.
7. The pitch range is rather narrow (within an octave).
8. Stress, especially in lyrical poems, is mostly decentralized.
9. The tempo is slow and often constant.
10. The sounds are pronounced distinctly. Long vowels are prolonged.
3. Intonation Peculiarities of the Drama (Reading Drama)
The stylization of colloquial language is one of the features of the language of plays. The playwright seeks to approximate a natural form of dialogue, a form as close to natural living dialogue as the literary norms will allow. It results in abbreviations, temporizers, overlapping that are frequent in plays.
Intonation as well as other aspects reflects the intermediate position of the drama between emotive prose and spontaneous speech.
I. The sense-groups are shorter than in the descriptive prose. They normally contain from one to three stressed (notional) words.
II. 1. A greater variety of tones characterizes this style. Besides simple tones, complex tones are frequent in final as well as in non-final sense-groups.
2. Sliding and Scandent scales are most useful.
3. Compound tunes are in wide use too.
4. The pitch range is wider than the range in reading descriptive texts (up to 3 octaves).
III. As to the accentual structure, the monological parts of plays are characterized by both centralized and decentralized stresses. In dialogues, especially in a dialogue-catch up, the centralized stress is prevailing.
IV. The tempo is mostly changeable and usually varies within the limits of the moderate tempo.
V. Logical pauses are most characteristic as the performers are supposed to know the text well. Hesitation pauses are rare (if they are not presupposed by text).
4. Intonational Peculiarities of Spontaneous Speech and an Interview
Speaking about the style of spontaneous speech, some linguists think of the style which is typical of the English of everyday life, and which occurs both within a family group and in informal external relationships, namely, in the speech of intimate friends or well-acquainted people. In such cases it is the emotional reaction to a situational or verbal stimulus that matters, thereby the attitude- and emotion-signalling functions of intonation here comes to the fore. Nevertheless intellectual and volitional patterns also have a part to play. They call this style familiar or conversational. These linguists do not consider an interview to be one of the types of this style, they regard it as a type of publicistic style along with political speeches, radio and television commentaries, etc. However, they forget that interviews can be of different types. Some interviews, for instance, an interview with a member of the Parliament about the present-day political situation or an interview with an editor of a newspaper about press in general or about the policy of his own newspaper, are surely examples of publicistic style. But there exist other interviews, for instance, an interview with people about their family life, about their experiences, etc., such interviews are clearly examples of conversational style. In this course we shall consider such interviews as one of the types of spontaneous speech along with conversations that occur in everyday life, and short unprepared speeches.
As you see, we take into account that spontaneous speech may be monological and dialogical; and that some types of dialogical speech as, for instance, an interview, may consist of a dialogical part and rather long monological pieces.
Spontaneous speech is characterized by a great number of elliptical sentences, incomplete sentences, repetitions, overlappings, etc. Intonation plays an important role in determining communicative types of sentences and semantic centres, in conveying attitudinal meanings.
Dialogical spontaneous speech is characterized by:
1 short sense-groups,
2 a great variety of tones (simple and complex),*
3 sliding and scandent scales,
4 the mid range,
5 the centralized stress,
6 the rhythm which is based on a regular repetition of terminal tones,
7 the changeable tempo,
8 a great variety of pauses (logical and hesitation).
* This style, unlike other styles, will allow the occurrence of the entire range of intonation patterns existing in English. This is due to the fact that there seen to be no social restrictions on the range of emotions and attitudes which might be displayed in a conversational situation.
Relatively unexcited conversational situations are characterized by low pre-heads, falling or stepping heads and simple low falling and rising tones. Monosyllabic response utterances display standardised, narrowed pitch patterns. Degrees of increasing intensity of excitement correlate with increased pitch height. As a result widened pitch patterns are typical of more excited situations. In this connection one should note the high proportion of intonation patterns with the high falling nuclear tone. The flow of conversation much depends on these patterns, as the High Fall implies, among other things, the effect of personal participation or involvement in the situation. It is extremely important for the participants in conversation to show an active interest in what is going on. Besides, we should mention the high frequency of compound tunes and heterogeneous heads. There is also the occasional completely unexpected placement of nuclear tone.
In spontaneous informal conversation there is a marked tendency for intonation to form a basic set of recurrent patterns. The precise nature of these patterns varies to a certain extent depending on such situational factors as the relationship of the speakers to each other, the chosen subject-matter, the fluency of an individual, his emotional state and so on.
IV. Тексты для чтения
Oscar Wilde. THE IMPORTANCE OF BEING EARNEST
Jack: Charming day it has been, Miss Fairfax.
Gwendolen: Pray don't talk to me about the weather, Mr. Worthing. Whenever people talk to me about the weather, I always feel quite certain that they mean something else. And that makes me so nervous.
Jack: I do mean something else.
Gwendolen: I thought so. In fact, I am never wrong.
Jack: And I would like to be allowed to take advantage of Lady Bracknell's temporary absence...
Gwendolen: I would certainly advise you to do so. Mamma has a way of coming back suddenly into a room that I have often had to speak to her about.
Jack [nervously]: Miss Fairfax, ever since I met you I have admired you more than any girl I have ever met since... I met you.
Gwendolen: Yes, I am quite well aware of the fact. And I often wish that in public, at any rate, you had been more demonstrative. For me you have always had an irresistible fascination. Even before I met you I was far from indifferent to you. We live, as I hope you know, Mr. Worthing, in an age of ideals. The fact is constantly mentioned in the more expensive monthly magazines, and has reached the provincial pulpits, I am told; and my ideal has always been to love some one of the name of Ernest. There is something in that name that inspires absolute confidence. The moment Algernon first mentioned to me that he had a friend called Ernest, I knew I was destined to love you.
Jack: You really love me, Gwendolen?
Gwendolen: Passionately!
Jack: Darling! You don't know how happy you've made me.
Gwendolen: My own Ernest!
Jack: But you don't really mean to say that you couldn't love me if my name wasn't Ernest?
Gwendolen: But your name is Ernest.
Jack: Yes, I know it is. But supposing it was something else? Do you mean to say you couldn't love me then?
Gwendolen [ glibly]: Ah! That is clearly a metaphysical speculation, and like most metaphysical speculations has very little reference at all to the actual facts of real life, as we know them.
Jack: Personally, darling, to speak quite candidly, I don't much care about the name of Ernest.... I don't think the name suits me at all.
Gwendolen: It suits you perfectly. It is a divine name. It has a music of its own. It produces vibrations.
Jack: Well, really, Gwendolen, I must say that I think there are lots of other much nicer names. I think Jack, for instance, a charming name.
Gwendolen: Jack? . . . No, there is very little music in the name Jack, if any at all, indeed. It does not thrill. It produces absolutely no vibrations.... I have known several Jacks, and they all, without exception, were more than usually plain. Besides, Jack is a notorious domesticity for John. And I pity any woman who is married to a man called John. She would probably never be allowed to know the entrancing pleasure of a single moment's solitude. The only really safe name is Ernest.
George Bernard Shaw. PYGMALION
HIGGINS [brusquely, recognizing her (Eliza) with unconcealed disappointment, and at once, babylike, making an intolerable grievance of it] Why, this is the girl I jotted down last night. She's no use: I’ve got all the records I want of the Lisson Grove lingo; and I'm not going to waste another cylinder on it. [To the girl] Be off with you: I don’t want you.
THE FLOWER GIRL Dont you be so saucy. You aint heard what I come for yet. [To Mrs Pearce, who is waiting at the door for further instructions] Did you tell him I come in a taxi?
MRS PEARCE Nonsense, girl! what do you think a gentleman like Mr Higgins cares what you came in?
THE FLOWER GIRL Oh, we are proud! He aint above giving lessons, not him: I heard him say so. Well, I aint come here to ask for any compliment; and if my money's not good enough I can go elsewhere.
HIGGINS Good enough for what?
THE FLOWER GIRL Good enough for ye-oo. Now you know, dont you? I'm come to have lessons, I am. And to pay for em too: make no mistake.
HIGGINS Well!!! [Recovering his breath with a gasp] What do you expect me to say to you?
THE FLOWER GIRL Well, if you was a gentleman, you might ask me to sit down, I think. Dont I tell you I'm bringing you business?
HIGGINS. Pickering: shall we ask this baggage to sit down, or shall we throw her out of the window?
THE FLOWER GIRL [running away in terror to the piano, where she turns at bay] Ah-ah-oh-ow-ow-ow-oo! [Wounded and whimpering] I wont be called a baggage when Ive offered to pay like any lady.
Motionless, the two men stare at her from the other side of the room, amazed.
PICKERING [gently] What is it you want, my girl?
THE FLOWER GIRL I want to be a lady in a flower shop stead of selling at the corner of Tottenham Court Road. But they wont take me unless I can talk more genteel. He said he could teach me. Well, here I am ready to pay him- not asking any favour- and he treats me as if I was dirt.
MRS PEARCE How can you be such a foolish ignorant girl as to think you could afford to pay Mr Higgins?
THE FLOWER GIRL Why shouldnt I? I know what lessons cost as well as you do; and I'm ready to pay.
HIGGINS How much?
THE FLOWER GIRL [coming back to him, triumphant] Now youre talking! I thought youd come off it when you saw a chance of getting back a bit of what you chucked at me last night. [Confidentially] Youd had a drop in, hadnt you?
HIGGINS [peremptorily] Sit down.
THE FLOWER GIRL Oh, if youre going to make a compliment of it –
HIGGINS [thundering at her] Sit down.
MRS PEARCE [severely] Sit down, girl. Do as you’re told. [She places the stray chair near the hearthrug between Higgins and Pickering, and stands behind it waiting for the girl to sit down.]
THE FLOWER GIRL. Ah-ah-ah-ow-ow-oo! [She stands, half rebellious, half bewildered.]
PICKERING [very courteous] Wont you sit down?
THE FLOWER GIRL [coyly] Dont mind if I do. [She sits down. Pickering returns to the hearthrug.]
HIGGINS What’s your name?
THE FLOWER GIRL Liza Doolittle.
HIGGINS. How much do you propose to pay me for the lessons?
LIZA Oh, I know whats right. A lady friend of mine gets French lessons for eighteen pence an hour from a real French gentleman. Well, you wouldnt have the face to ask me the same for teaching me my own language as you would for French; so I wont give more than a shilling. Take it or leave it.
HIGGINS [walking up and down the room, rattling his keys and his cash in his pockets] You know, Pickering, if you consider a shilling, not as a simple shilling, but as a percentage of this girl's income, it works out as fully equivalent to sixty or seventy guineas from a millionaire.
PICKERING. How so?
HIGGINS Figure it out. A millionaire has about £150 a day. She earns about half-a-crown.
LIZA [haughtily] Who told you I only –
HIGGINS [continuing] She offers me two-fifths of her day's income for a lesson. Two-fifths of a millionaire's income for a day would be somewhere about £ 60. It's handsome. By George, it's enormous! It's the biggest offer I ever had.
LIZA [rising, terrified] Sixty pounds! What are you talking about? I never offered you sixty pounds. Where would I get –
HIGGINS Hold your tongue.
LIZA [weeping] But I aint got sixty pounds. Oh –
MRS PEARCE Don’t cry, you silly girl. Sit down. Nobody is going to touch your money.
HIGGINS Somebody is going to touch you, with a broomstick, if you don’t stop snivelling. Sit down.
LIZA [obeying slowly] Ah-ah-ah-ow-oo-o! One would think you was my father.
HIGGINS If I decide to teach you, I'll be worse than two fathers to you. Here! [he offers her his silk handkerchief]
LIZA What’s this for?
HIGGINS To wipe your eyes. To wipe any part of your face that feels moist. Remember: that’s your handkerchief; and that’s your sleeve. Don’t mistake the one for the other if you wish to become a lady in a shop.
Liza, utterly bewildered, stares helplessly at him.
MRS PEARCE It's no use talking to her like that, Mr Higgins: she doesn’t understand you. Besides, you’re quite wrong: she doesn’t do it that way at all [she takes the handkerchief].
LIZA [snatching it] Here! You give me that handkerchief. He give it to me, not to you.
PICKERING [laughing] He did. I think it must be regarded as her property, Mrs Pearce.
MRS PEARCE [resigning herself] Serve you right, Mr Higgins.
PICKERING Higgins: I'm interested. What about the ambassador's garden party? I'll say you’re the greatest teacher alive if you make that good. I'll bet you all the expenses of the experiment you can’t do it. And I'll pay for the lessons.
LIZA Oh, you are real good. Thank you, Captain.
T1
Eileen So anyway, right, I was, I was living in Edinburgh, erm, with this friend of mine and there were a few of us in the flat ... and we were going out and we decided to call a taxi to go out. So erm, we phoned a cab and it took quite a long time to arrive, so we were kind of standing at the door, you know, half in, half out, waiting to get into the taxi and stuff and erm, this black cab arrived and parked outside and you know it was erm, the flat was, it was on a road which was a hill and the car was parked just er, the cab was parked in front of the house and the cab driver got out and came to the house just to check that it was the right house and stuff (Ring the door-bell? or ...) and we were all standing there, but he, for some reason he decided to get out anyway, and while he was coming to speak to us, me and this friend of mine decided, 'Oh, there's our cab, let's just get in, get in the cab,' so, erm, we went to the cab, got in and we sat in the back and you know these big black cabs that, you know, the back is separated from the front by that glass (By that glass screen ...) panel, this glass slidey thing, and so we just sat there and were kind of watching everybody, you know, chatting at the door, thinking, 'What's taking them so long? Why aren't they coming to this cab?' And erm, and then suddenly the cab started rolling backwards (No!) quite slowly at first and then it just got a little bit faster and a little bit faster and it was just such a shock that we didn't really know, we didn't really know what was happening. We looked at each other and thought, 'Erm ... erm' and then we looked out the window and we saw everybody kind of looking, and then we looked at each other and we just didn't know what to do! And the cab was just like rolling backwards and backwards and backwards and er, because of the glass door we thought, 'God, we can't do anything, what can we do?' so we just kind of stood there, and then suddenly the cab driver who was standing at the door, suddenly erm, realised that his, you know, his living, his livelihood, was rolling backwards down the hill (Getting faster and faster ...) Yes, getting faster and faster. And erm, he kind of ran towards the car and you would expect him to kind of run round to the driver's seat, you know, driver's door, get in the cab and pull on the handbrake, but erm, but he didn't do that – he was obviously in such a panic that he ran round to the back of this huge heavy black cab and this tiny little man kind of stood there trying to stop this car with the force of his body, from running down the hill ... (Oh, my God! What happened?) And, well, he, of course he couldn't do it, you know and we were sitting in the back of the cab looking out the back window, by this time finding the whole thing really funny, which was stupid because, you know, we were hurtling towards our deaths. And erm, and this man was totally stricken and he didn't know what to do and he wasn't making any, he wasn't managing to stop the cab at all... the cab was just like going down and down and he was running along backwards with his hands up against his cab and erm, but then luckily erm, my friend had the presence of mind to slide back the glass door and reach over and pull on the handbrake, so I mean, in the end it was OK but I mean, it was ridiculous, 'cos it could have been a really, you know, a really dangerous situation. But actually just because of this man's reaction we were sitting, we were sitting in the back of the car just laughing ...