1. You are convicted of an offence.

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2. You are sentenced to punishment for an offence.

3. You are tried for an offence.

4. You are suspected of an offence.

5. You plead guilty or not guilty to an offence at the trial.

6. You are arrested for an offence.

7. You are accused of an offence (You are charged with an of-

fence).

Упражнение 2. Заполните пропуски.

1. The ... must decide if the accused is innocent or... 2. The po­lice were sure the man was a ..., but it would be difficult to ... it in court. 3. Two months later the defendant was sent to court for ...

4. If the accused is convicted of rape, the ... may be at least ten years in ... 5.... defend people and present... 6. If you park your car illegally, you will have to pay a ... 7. In Britain it is ... the law to drive a motor vehicle without insurance. 8. Fortunately, it was only a minor ... and we were not taken to the police station. 9. The ... sentences people. 10. I have never ... the law and ... a crime.

11. Police are allowed to stop anyone in the street and ... them.

Упражнение 3. Подберите к словам и словосочетаниям в колонке А соответствующие по значению из колонки В.

A

1. wrong

2. ask questions

3. commit a crime

4. arrest

5. evidence

a. punishment

b. provide facts

c. kill someone by intention

d. question

e. investigate

6. sentence

7. theft

8. rob

9. burgle

10. steal

11. shoplift

12. murder

13. manslaughter

14. capital punishment

15. try to find out what hap­pened

16. prove

f. kill someone by accident

g. break into a shop / house

h. take to the police station

i. steal from a shop when open j. steal from people or places k. break the law

1. illegal, against the law m. information about the crime n. stealing

o. take

p. death sentence

Упражнение 4. Заполните пропуски.

1. We think the driver of a BMW will be charged with ... be­cause he did not mean to kill the boy. 2. Did he kill his partner? Yes, he has been charged with ... 3. He took the money from women’s bags. He has been charged with ... 4. She stole things from a supermarket, so she will be charged with... 5. Two boys have been charged with ... because they broke into a shop in the middle of the night and took money.

Упражнение 5. Замените выделенные слова и словосочетания близкими по значению словами или словосочетаниями.

1. If someone commits a crime, the police must try to find out what happened. 2. When the police find the persons responsible for the crime they take them to the police station and ask them a lot of questions. 3. To reach their decision, the jury must listen carefully to the information about the crime for and against the accused. 4. It was only a minor offence and a driver had to pay money. 5. If you do something wrong, then you commit a crime. 6. Death sentence is a comparatively rare event now. 7. What can government do to stop crime?

6. be charged f. the evidence

7. be convicted g. with the crime

8. do smth. h. a crime

Упражнение 7. Заполните пропуски антонимами.

guilty ... lawful ...

illegal ... usual, common

minor ... right

В. Speak about:

1. Individual actions necessary to prevent a crime from happen­ing (to stop a crime).

2. Capital punishment for some crimes.

3. Do you think people should be allowed to use a gun or knife in self-defence?

Text 3

Какие виды права вы знаете? Прочитайте и переведите текст.

The law is the whole body of laws considered collectively. There are many ways in which the law can be classified. It can be divided into common law, civil law, criminal law, constitutional law, sub­stantive and procedural laws, etc.

By the words «common law» we mean law which is common to the whole country — national law in contrast to local law. Com­mon law (in England) is unwritten law based on judicial decisions made by judges in previous cases (case law) in contrast to the law made by Parliament or other law-making body (statute law). It dis­tinguishes the common law legal systems based on precedents from the civil law jurisdictions based on civil codes. Law of equity is the application of principles of justice outside common law or statute law, used to correct laws when these would apply unfairly in special circumstances.

A simple distinction between the criminal law (the foundation of which is the common law), and the civil law is that the latter reg­ulates the relationships between individuals or bodies and the for­mer regulates the legal relationships between the state and individual people and bodies. Examples of the civil law include breaches of contract (the law of contract), tort (literally meaning «wrong»), property or claims for damages for negligent conduct. Consider the following situation. You decide to buy a cellphone from a local shop. You pay the correct price and take the cellphone away. You have entered into a contract with the owner of the shop. After three days the cellphone fails to work. This is a common situ­ation and usually the shopkeeper will replace the cellphone or re­turn your money. If not, you may wish to take legal action to recover your loss. As the law of contract is part of the civil law the parties to the action will be you (an individual) and the owner of the shop (an individual person or body). Hence, the civil law is more concerned with apportioning losses than determining blame. Given that the defendant has damaged the victim’s property, the question in the civil law is who should pay for that damage. If the victim is wholly innocent and the defendant even only little to blame, then the defendant should shoulder the liability.

Now let us look at some examples of the criminal law. This is the law by which the state regulates the conduct of its citizens. Criminal offences range from the petty (e.g. parking offences) to the very serious (e.g. murder). Look at the following situation. You are driving your car at 70 m.p.h. (112 kilometers per hour) in an area, which has a speed limit of 40 m.p.h. You are stopped by a po­lice officer and subsequently a case is brought against you for dan­gerous driving. This is a criminal offence. The parties to the action will therefore be the state (in the form of prosecuting authority) and you (an individual).

Although the division between the civil and criminal law is clear, there are many actions, which will constitute a criminal of­fence and a civil wrong. For example, you are driving your car too fast. Suppose that while you were doing this you knocked over and injured an elderly man. You will have committed a criminal of­fence (dangerous driving) and a civil wrong (negligence). The legal consequences under the criminal and civil law will be different. You would be prosecuted by the state in the criminal courts for dangerous driving and sued by the elderly man in the civil courts for negligence. The two actions will be totally separate.

The law of contract and the criminal law are two areas of sub­stantive law. «Substantive law lays down people’s rights, duties, liberties and powers». By this is meant the actual content or sub­stance of the law. These are the rules on which the courts base their decisions.

Procedural law is also a set of rules. Rules of procedure are the rules, which govern such matters as how the case is to be presented, in what court it shall lie, or when it is to be tried. Procedural rules are, in other words, the rules, which govern the machinery as op­posed to the subject-matter. It is a striking fact that in the earlier stages of legal development these rules assume paramount impor­tance: form is better understood than substance, and formal re­quirements, rather than abstract principles, usually determined legal rights. However, the rules of procedure are now more flexible than once they were.

Упражнение 1. Прочитайте определения юридических терминов. Дайте русские эквиваленты выделенным словам и словосочетаниям. Переведите предложения.

1. The person charged with the criminal offence is the defen­dant. 2. A criminal case is brought by a prosecutor. 3. A successful criminal prosecution will result in a conviction. 4. The word «guilty» is used primarily of criminals. The corresponding word in civil cases is «liable», but this word is also used in criminal con­texts. 5. The party bringing a civil action is the plaintiff. 6. The party is one of the persons or sides in a legal agreement or dispute.

7. The defendant in a civil case is sued by the plaintiff. 8. If the plaintiff is successful, the defendant will be found liable. 9. The dis­tinction between crimes and civil wrongs relates to the legal conse­quences. 10. A court order not to do something is an injunction.

11. Judgment is the decision of a judge or court. 12. Procedure is the regular order of doing legal things. 13. A proceeding is a course of action. 14. Damages are money given as legal compensation.

15. To sue is to take legal action against someone in a civil case.

Упражнение 2. Заполните пропуски следующими словами:

judgment prosecutor conviction plaintiff sues prosecution punishment injunction punished

1. In criminal proceedings a (1) ... prosecutes a defendant.

2. The result of the (2)... if successful is a (3)... 3. And the defen­dant may be (4)... by one of a variety of punishments ranging from
life imprisonment to a fine or else may be released or discharged without (5) ... 4. In civil proceedings a plaintiff (6) ... (e.g. brings an action against) a defendant. 5. The proceedings if successful re­sult in judgment for the plaintiff, and the (7)... may order the de­fendant to pay the (8)... money, or transfer property to him, or to do or not to do something [(9)...], or to perform a contract.

Упражнение 3. Заполните пропуски, разместив следующие слова и сло­восочетания в соответствующую колонку:

crime, l(fe imprisonment, to convict, civil wrong, guilty, plaintiff, defendant, to prose­cute, liable, to punish, prosecution, conviction, judgment for the plaintiff, prosecutor, of­fence, punishment

Civil Criminal

Упражнение 4. Составьте словосочетания глаголов из колонки А и су­ществительных из колонки В.

А

1. bring

2. conduct

3. investigate

4. commit/charge with

5. punish

6. determine

7. give/hear

8. take/start

В

a. the prosecution

b. a criminal

c. blame/right

d. the evidence

e. a case/an action/a prosecution

f. legal proceedings

g. a case/a crime

h. an offence

Упражнение 5. Подберите к словам из колонки А синонимы или близкие по значению слова и словосочетания из колонки В.

В

a. most important/ greatest

b. take the responsibility for

c. allowed by law

d. behaviour (moral)

e. pay no attention to/ fail to do smth.

f. carelessness

g. for this reason

h. civil wrong/ not (generally) a crime

i. money paid in compensation j. difference

k. responsible for

1. a system of laws m. breaking (an agreement/ duty) n. offence

o. divide/ distribute p. small

petty legal

misconduct case law...

discharge carefulness ...

injustice

national

unlawful based on precedent ...

release from prison

fair

В. Speak about:

Distinctions between the criminal law and the civil law. Give your own examples of both of them.

Text 4

Какие судебные институты исполняют закон? Прочитайте и переведите текст.

Judicial Institutions (Courts)

In all legal systems there are institutions for creating, modify­ing, abolishing and applying the law. Usually these take the form of

a hierarchy of courts. The role of each court and its capacity to make decisions is strictly defined in relation to the courts. There are two main reasons for having a variety of courts. One is that a particular court can specialize in a particular kind of legal action. The other is so that a person who feels his case was not fairly treated in a lower court can appeal to a higher court for reassess­ment. The decisions of a higher court are binding upon lower courts. At the top of the hierarchy is a supreme law-making body.

The court in which a case is first heard is called the court of first instance. Appellate courts (or Appeal Courts) are civil or crime courts to which a person may go for a reconsideration of the deci­sion of the original court.

The formal courts are not the only means of solving disputes; adjudication increasingly takes place outside the court system. The two main forms of extra-court adjudication are tribunals and arbi­tration. Tribunals were established to adjudicate on disputes arising out of social legislation which regulates such areas as employment, housing and social security benefits.

The disputes in these areas might be settled by ordinary courts but the ordinary courts lack the necessary expertise or are too for­mal, slow and costly. Hence, the legislation has established a tribu­nal to do the job. There are numerous types of tribunals, each with its own limited jurisdiction over a particular type of claim. Many tribunals have expert assessors¹ sitting along a legally experienced chairman to make up the judging panel². From the point of view of the ordinary citizens they are the most important courts in the country but from the point of view of lawyers they are perhaps the least important element in the court system of England.

In contrast, arbitration is a private means of adjudication, ar­ranged and agreed between parties involved. Here the parties agree to place their dispute in the hands of an independent third party and invest the arbitrator with the power to decide the issue. The ar­bitrator is likely to be someone with expertise in the area. The pur­pose of arbitration is to enable people to have small disputes resolved in an informal atmosphere, avoiding as far as possible the strict rules of procedure usually associated with court proceedings. This does not mean that rules are not observed because the object of all court procedures is to protect the interests of each party to the action and to ensure that the case is tried fairly. Nevertheless, the formalities are kept to the minimum.

The advantages of arbitration are similar to those of tribunals: speed, lower costs, flexibility, informality and adjudication by an expert. These advantages must, of course, be balanced against dis­advantages. There is the argument that cheaper, quicker and less formal hearings result in a poor quality service. Nevertheless, the increasing use of tribunals and arbitration seems to indicate that they are a popular way of resolving disputes. On a wider point, they also increase access to justice for the ordinary people who make up 38 per cent of the plaintiffs.

Notes to the Text

1. expert assessor — эксперт-консультант

2. judging panel — состав, список судей

Упражнение 1. Дайте русские эквиваленты выделенным словам и слово­сочетаниям, переведите предложения.

1. A hierarchy of courts is an organization with levels of author­ity from the highest to the lowest courts. 2. To appeal means to take a case to a higher court in the hope of a new decision. 3. A request to a higher court to reexamine and change the judgment of a previ­ous court hearing is called an appeal. 4. An appellant is the person or the party that requests an appeal. S. Adjudication is an act of giv­ing a judgment or of deciding a legal problem. 6. The courts called tribunals are specialist courts outside the judicial system which ex­amine special problems and make judgments. 7. To arbitrate is to settle a dispute between parties by referring it to an arbitrator in­stead of going to court. 8. The word «legislation» means making laws or the laws made. 9. Jurisdiction is administration of justice or the extent of legal authority. 10. An assessor expert helps and ad­vises a judge on technical matters in a particularly difficult case.

11. Disputes are disagreements or arguments. To be in dispute means to be in opposition to each other. 12. The agreement is bind­ing on all parties, that is, all parties signing it must do what is agreed. 13. To bind is to place a court under legal obligation to act in accordance with a previous judicial decision.

Упражнение 2. Заполните пропуски.

1. We have no authority to deal with this matter: it does not come within our ... 2.The person who goes to a higher court to ask
it to change a decision or a sentence of a lower court is known to be called an ... 3. To ... means to take a question to a higher court for rehearing and a new decision. 4. An ... is a person giving a decision on a legal problem in an industrial dispute. 5. The judicial... im­plies that judges in the higher courts have more authority than those in the lower courts. 6. Labour ... is laws concerning the em­ployment of workers. 7. ... is the settlement of a dispute between parties by an outside person, chosen by both parties. 8. He lost his ... for damages against the company. 9. Industrial ... are courts which can decide in disputes between employers and employees.

10. Industrial or labour ... are arguments between management and workers. 11. ... precedent is a decision of a higher court which has to be followed by a judge in a lower court.

Упражнение 3. Составьте словосочетания глаголов из колонки А и суще­ствительных из колонки В.

А

1. hear / treat

2. play

3. regulate

4. resolve / settle

5. make

6. observe

7. protect

8. keep

9. invest

10. assess

11. appeal

a. interests

b. a rule

c. a case

d. facts

e. relations

f. with power

g. a part / role

h. a dispute / argument

i. to a higher court

j. smth. to the minimum k. a decision

Упражнение 4. Подберите к глаголам из колонки А близкие по значению слова и словосочетания из колонки В.

A

1. abolish

2. agree

3. argue

4. avoid

5. bind

6. establish

7. settle / resolve

8. treat

a. express disagreement

b. consider, deal with

c. legally force to do smth.

d. put an end to

e. say «yes», be of the same opinion

f. keep away from, escape

g. set up

h. decide, determine

В

a. trial

b. subject of a dispute; question for discussion

c. ability

d. advantage; help

e. adaptable

f. highest

g. outside

h. precisely limited; exactly defined

i. normal, usual

j. expert knowledge

Упражнение б. Заполните пропуски антонимами.

inside ... formal

the latter

agreement ... old

fairly

Упражнение 7. Назовите прилагательные с суффиксом -able, означаю­

щие:

1. that can be argued

2. that can be enforced

3. that can be avoided

4. that can be agreed

Упражнение 9. А. Назовите 20—25 ключевых слов и словосочетаний на тему «Judicial institutions and courts».

В. Speak about:

1. The difference between courts of first instance and appellate courts.

2. The purpose of tribunals and arbitration.

3. The advantages of arbitration.

Text 5

Какие требования предъявляют к квалификации юриста в современном обществе? Прочитайте и переведите текст.

The Profession of Lawyers

The word «lawyer» describes a person who practices law, who has become officially qualified to act in certain legal matters because of examinations he has taken and professional experience he has gained. Most countries have different groups of lawyers who each take a particular kind of examination in order to qualify to do par­ticular jobs. In Japan, a lawyer must decide whether he wants to take examination to become an attorney, a public prosecutor or a judge.

A distinctive feature of the legal profession in England is that it is divided into two groups: barristers and solicitors. Barristers are lawyers who specialize in arguing cases in front of a judge and have an exclusive right to be heard, the right of audience¹, in all law courts in England, even in the highest courts. They are not paid di­rectly by clients, but are employed by solicitors. Judges are usually chosen from the most senior barristers, and once appointed they cannot continue to practice as barristers. Solicitors are lawyers who do much of the initial preparation for cases. They prepare legal documents (e.g. wills, sale of land or buildings), advise clients on legal matters, and speak on their behalf ² in lower courts. In other words, a barrister spends most of his time either in a courtroom or preparing his arguments for the court and a solicitor spends most of his time in an office giving advice to clients and making investiga­tions. Many people in England believe the distinction between bar­risters and solicitors should be eliminated, as it has already happened in Australia.

In both the United States and other industrialized countries, lawyers are becoming more and more specialized. Working in small firms, lawyers now tend to restrict themselves to certain kinds of work and lawyers working in large law firms or employed in the law departments of a large commercial enterprise work on highly spe­cific areas of law.

How to enter the profession of lawyers? Lawyers are subject to standardized examination and other controls to regulate their corn-

petence. In some countries in order to practice as a lawyer it is nec­essary to obtain a university degree in law. However, in others, a degree may be insufficient; professional examinations must be passed. In Britain, the main requirement is to have passed the Bar Final examination (for barristers) or the Law Society Final exami­nation (for solicitors). Someone with a university degree in a sub­ject other than law needs first to take a preparatory course. Someone without a degree at all may also prepare for the final ex­amination, but this will take several years. In most countries, law­yers would say that the time they spent studying for their law finals was one of the worst period of their life. This is because an enor­mous number of procedural rules covering a wide area of law must be memorized. In Japan, where there are relatively few lawyers, the examinations are supposed to be particularly hard: less than 5 per­cent of candidates pass.

A solicitor in England must then spend two years as an articled clerk³, during which time his work is closely supervised by an ex­perienced solicitor, and then he must take further courses. A bar­rister spends a similar year serving as a pupil under an experienced barrister.

In most countries, once a lawyer is fully qualified he receives a certificate proving his right to sell his service. There are also insur­ance provisions so that if a lawyer is ever successfully sued by a cli­ent for professional incompetence, there will be funds available to enable him to pay damages. Even if a lawyer is very competent, he must take care not to break the many rules of procedure and ethics set by the body which regulates his profession. In England, the body regulating the conduct of solicitors is the Law Society. There is also a Solicitor’s Disciplinary Tribunal with the power to suspend or even disqualify a solicitor.

In most legal systems, conversations between a lawyer and his client are privileged: the client should know that what he says will not be passed on to someone else without his permission. In theory, it could pose difficult ethical problems for a lawyer. For instance, what should he do in a criminal case if he believes his client guilty? In any case, it is the prosecution’s job to prove guilt, not the de­fence’s to prove innocence. A lawyer could therefore defend his cli­ent simply by trying to point out weaknesses in the prosecution case.

Notes to the Text

1. the right of audience — право выступать в суде

2. on their behalf — от их имени

3. articled clerk — служащий конторы солиситора, выпол­няющий свою работу в порядке платы за обучение профессии солиситора

Упражнение 1. Составьте словосочетания глаголов из колонки А и суще­ствительных из колонки В.

A

1. enter

2. prepare/ prepare for

3. become

4. gain

5. give

6. argue

7. pose

8. speak

9. get/ obtain

10. prove

11. take/ pass

12. do

13. spend

a. advice

b. a degree in law

c. time

d. a problem

e. examinations

f. a job

g. on one’s behalf

h. a profession

i. guilt/ innocence j. a case

k. experience

1. arguments, documents/ the final exam m. a lawyer

Упражнение 2. Назовите 5 словосочетаний со словами law и legal.

Упражнение 3. Заполните пропуски.

1. ... is a general term for a member of the legal profession, e.g. a judge, barrister, solicitor, law teacher, etc. 2. The common pur­pose of a barrister and a solicitor is to provide professional service and advice on legal... 3. Barrister is a lawyer who can speak and ... a case in one of the higher courts. 4. Attorneys are persons who are legally allowed to act on ... of someone else. 5. Solicitors may now have a right of... in certain courts. 6. At present a solicitor may choose any ... to advise his client or to appear for the client in court. 7. ... is a clerk who has passed the examination to become a solicitor but has to work in a solicitor’s office for some years to learn the law. 8.... means protected by privilege, e.g. a letter from a client to his lawyer. 9. Jurors are members of a ... 10. Jurist is an ex­pert in... 11. Jurisprudence is science and philosophy of human...

Упражнение 4. Заполните пропуски следующими словами: legal, legally, legalize, legalization.

1. To ... is to make something legal. 2. To sue means to take ... action against someone in a civil court. 3. The directors of large commercial enterprises are ... responsible. 4. The ... of labour rela­tions is reflected in the law of employment.

higher in authority

remove

limit

need / require

hand / give to smb. else

show / direct attention to some

discuss / debate rule / order not general control systematically think

Упражнение 6. Заполните пропуски антонимами.

sufficient ... guilt

incompetent ... strength

weak ... competence ...

lower court ... junior

qualify ... different

final exam ... very small

How to become a lawyer in different countries.

SUPPLEMENTARY TEXTS

To be read after Text 2

Computer crime

Computers can be used to commit all kinds of crimes. It is sug­gested that one could commit murder by computer if one hacked

into an air-traffic controller’s computer system and caused aero­planes to crash, with the intent¹ to kill the passengers. Not surpris­ingly crimes that specifically relate to computers are relatively recent creations of statute.

Some specific computer crimes are set out in the Computer Misuse Act 1990. It is designed to protect information kept on computers. There are three particular reasons why such informa­tion needs protection by the criminal law. Firstly it is said to be very hard to safeguard information stored on a computer, particu­larly as often the information is intended to be accessed by a num­ber of authorized people. By contrast information on paper can be kept in a safe or other secure² place. Secondly the ease of destroy­ing or corrupting data on a computer means it deserves³ special protection, particularly as it is not always possible for the owner of the computer to realize that the data have been looked at. Thirdly the highly confidential⁴ nature of the kind of information kept on computers (often concerning many members of the public) is such that it needs particular protection.

The act prohibits⁵ «hacking», i.e., gaining⁶ unauthorized access to computer material. The offence is committed if a defendant is en­tering the computer just to see what he can find. The Act also con­tains a more serious offence of doing this with the intent to commit another offence. The most common example is likely to be a decep­tion (обман) offence or theft. A defendant who obtained data which he intended to use in the future to commit an offence of obtaining property by deception will still be guilty of the more serious offence.

There is also an offence of modifying computer material in an unauthorized way. This section is clearly aimed at people who alter⁷ computer data with intent to corrupt a program. The intent does not need to be directed towards any particular computer or data. Modification is defined as including removal of any program or data on a computer and includes adding to the contents or erasing⁸ them.

It also includes temporary⁹ modification. It would appear to cover sending someone a disc with a virus on it that was intended to damage the working of the computer.

It is possible to be guilty of criminal damage of computers if there has been a physical change to some components of the com­puter.

Notes to the Text

1. (legal) purpose, intention

2. safe

3. have a right to

4. (to be kept) secret

5. say that smth. must not be done (by rules of regulations)

6. obtain

7. change

8. removing

9. lasting for a short time only

To be read after Text 3

The Jury

The jury has a long history within the English legal system, al­though its role has changed significantly during that time. Ori­ginally, members of the jury were witnesses¹. Today, they are a group of twelve ordinary people with no special knowledge, chosen at random to act as impartial² judges of the facts of a case. In a jury trial, the jury is advised by the trial judge on the relevant³ law; that is, the judge’s function is to explain the law to the jury and ensure that the trial is conducted according to the rules of procedure and evidence. The function of the jury is then to apply the law to the facts and then decide, in criminal cases, whether the defendant is guilty or not guilty and, in civil cases, whether the defendant is lia­ble to the plaintiff. The decision of a jury is called a verdict⁴. The juries do not need to give reasons for their verdict. In civil cases the jury will also decide on the amount of damages to be awarded to the plaintiff.

«Shadow» («теневой») juries are sometimes used to research the adequacy of the jury system; a random group of twelve people sits in the court and hears a case and reaches a verdict which is then compared to the verdict of the real jury.

Although the jury continues to have much symbolic importance in the English legal system, in practice its role has been greatly dimished⁵ over recent years.

Notes to the Text

1. a person who gives evidence in court

2. just, fair; not favouring one side more than the other

3. (closely) connected with what is being discussed, done, etc.

4. decision reached by a jury

5. make or become less

Judges

Judge is a public officer with authority to hear and decide cases in a law court. In the British system of law judges are chosen from lawyers who have gained considerable experience as legal practitio­ners before being appointed to the judiciary.

Judges must be independent of the parties to a dispute (this en­sures a fair and just trial). They must be independent of the execu­tive. This enables the judges to exercise control over government action. Judges must be free of any political bias (пристрастность, предубеждение).

Most of the work of the judges is judicial in the sense that they have to adjudicate upon disputes. To do this they are required, im­partially, to find the facts based on the evidence presented to the court, to apply the law to the facts and then to give the right deci­sion. Their role is therefore limited to ensuring that there is a fair trial, reaching a decision on the fact as presented to them and ap­plying this to the law.

Judges do not investigate the cases they are trying but they do not play a completely passive role; they may, sometimes, question witnesses and they must ensure that the trial is conducted accord­ing to the rules of procedure and evidence.

ТЕРМИНОЛОГИЧЕСКИЙ СЛОВАРЬ

A

abolish [a'bolij] v аннулировать;

отменять; упразднять

accused [a'kju:zd] n обвиняемый

adjudicate [a'djudikeit] v судить, выносить приговор

alter ['о:It©] v изменять(ся); вно­сить изменения

appeal [e'pi:l] n апелляция; апел­ляционная жалоба; обращение; v обжаловать, апеллировать, по­давать апелляционную жалобу; - court (Appellate court) апелля­ционный суд

apportion [e'po.Jan] v распреде­лять; разделять, делить (сораз­мерно, пропорционально)

argue ['a:gju:] v аргументировать; приводить доводы assessment [a'sesmant] п оценка; определение; reassessment п пе­ресмотр

attorney [a'ta:ni] п поверенный; адвокат; юрист

В

barrister ['baerista] п адвокат; бар­ристер

behaviour [bi'heivja] п поведение bind [baind] v обязывать, связы­вать обязательствами; ограничи­вать

blame [bleim] п порицание; ответ­ственность

breach [biTtf] n нарушение (зако­на, обязательства)

burglar ['be:gle] n вор-взломщик, громила

burglary ['be:gleri] n кража со взломом

С

case [keis] n судебное дело, пре­цедент, факт

cell [sel] п тюремная камера civil ['sivl] а гражданский; - law гражданское право; - code граж­данский кодекс; - wrong [гэг\] на­рушение гражданских прав charge [tja:d3] v обвинять; to be charged with обвинять в чем-то claim [kleim] n претензия; заявле­ние; иск; рекламация commit [ke'mit] v совершать (пре­ступление)’, ~ a crime совершать преступление

Commonwealth Countries Британ­ское Содружество (наций) content ['kontent] n содержание; суть; сущность

convict ['konvikt] v выносить при­говор; признавать виновным conduct ['kondAkt] п поведение, образ действий court [ko:t] п суд custom ['kAStem] п обычай

D

damages ['daemidjiz] п убытки, компенсация за убытки; иск о возмещении убытков defend [di'fend] v защищать в суде defence [di'fens] п защита на суде; self - самооборона; самозащита defendant [di'fendent] п обвиняе­мый

deserve [di'ze:v] v заслуживать, быть достойным; иметь право на защиту

despite [dis'pait] prep несмотря на diminish [di'minij] v уменьшать

E

enforce [in'fo:s] v принуждать; на­вязывать; заставлять equity ['ekwiti] n право справед­ливости (система права, дейст­вующая наряду с общим правом и писаным, статутным правом; до­полняет обычное право) erase [i'reiz] v стирать; вычерки­вать (из памяти) erasing п стирание записи evidence ['evidens] п улика; сви­детельские показания

executive [ig'zekjutiv] п (the ~) ис­полнительная власть; исполни­тельный орган

F

fair [fee] а честный; справедли­вый; беспристрастный

fine [fain] п штраф

G

gain [gein] п прибыль, выгода; v извлекать пользу, выгоду guilty ['gilti] а виновный

Н

hear [hie] v слушать, заслуши­вать; разбирать

I

impartial [im'pa:Jel] а беспристра­стный, справедливый

injunction [in'cfeArikJen] п предпи­сание, приказ; судебный запрет

innocent ['inesent] а невиновный

intent [in'tent] п намерение, цель

investigate [in'vestigeit] v рассле­довать

judge TcfeACfe] n судья

judgment/judgement ['cfeAdsment] n приговор, решение суда

judiciary [cfeui'dijiori] n суд, судеб­ная система; ~ law судебное право

jury ['cfeuari] n присяжные (выно­сящие приговор no гражданским и уголовным делам)

justice ['djAStis] п справедливость; правосудие; юстиция

L

law [1э:] п право; case - преце­дентное право; common - общее (обычное) право; constitutional ~ конституционное право; civil ~ гражданское право; criminal - уго­ловное право; procedural - проце­дурное право; statute - статутное право, «письменный закон»; sub­stantive and procedural - матери­альное и процессуальное право; ~ of contract договорное (обяза­тельное) право; - of employment трудовое право; право занятости (работы, службы); ~ and order по­рядок, правопорядок; break the ~ нарушить закон; to lay down the ~ устанавливать правовые нормы lawmaking body n законодатель­ный орган

lawyer ['loije] n адвокат, юрист

legal ['li:gal] а юридический, пра­вовой; - action судебный иск

liability [Jaie'biliti] n ответствен­ность

loss [los] n потеря; урон M

manslaughter ['maer^sloite] n не­предумышленное убийство

murder ['moide] n убийство (пре­думышленное) negligent ['negligent] а небреж­ный, халатный, невнимательный

negligence ['neglicfeens] n небреж­ность, халатность; преступная небрежность

О

offence [e'fens] п проступок, на­рушение; преступление; criminal ~ уголовное преступление; minor ~ мелкое нарушение, проступок

Р

paramount ['paeremaunt] а верхов­ный, высший, первостепенный

participate [pa:'tisipeit] v участ­вовать

party ['pa:ti] v сторона

petty ['peti] а мелкий, незначи­тельный

plead [pli:d] v to - guilty призна­вать себя виновным в предъяв­ленном обвинении; to - not guilty заявить о своей невиновности; не признавать себя виновным

police [pe'li:s] п полиция; the ~ station полицейский участок

pose [pauz] v предлагать, ставить (задачуу вопрос)

prescribe [pris'kraib] v предписы­вать

prison ['prizn] n тюрьма prisoner n заключенный

privileged ['privilicfed] а сообщен­ные клиентом и не подлежащие оглашению (сведения)

probation [pre'beijen] п испыта­тельный срок; вид условного на­казания; условное освобождение на поруки

procedure [pre'siicfee] п процедура prohibit [pre'hibit] v запрещать
property ['propoti] n имущество, собственность, хозяйство

prosecute ['prosikju:t] v преследо­вать судебным порядком; высту­пать в качестве обвинителя

punish ['рлшД v наказывать punishment п наказание; capital ~ смертная казнь, высшая мера на­казания; corporal - телесное на­казание

pupil ['pju:pl] п ученик, учащийся

R

rape [reip] п изнасилование

recover [ri'kAve] v обретать снова, возвращать себе; получить об­ратно

relevant ['relivont] а уместный; относящийся к делу

revision [ri'v^on] п пересмотр, ре­визия

robber ['гэЬэ] п грабитель robbery ['robori] п грабеж

S

sense ['sens] п common ~ здравый смысл

sentence ['sentons] п приговор; v осуждать, приговаривать

settle ['setl] v урегулировать {спор, дело)

shoplifter ['JopJifto] п магазинный вор

shoplifting п кража в магазине

shoulder ['Jouldo] v брать на себя {ответственность, вину)

solicitor [so'lisito] п солиситор, адвокат {дающий советы клиенту; подготавливающий дела для бар­ристера и выступающий только в судах низшей инстанции)

striking ['straikiril а поразитель­ный subject [sob'cfeekt] v подвергать {воздействию, влиянию, экзаме­ну); to be - to подлежащий чему- либо

subject-matter п предмет догово­ра-спора

substance ['SAbstons] п сущность, суть, содержание

sue [sju:] v преследовать судеб­ным порядком, возбуждать дело

supervise ['sju.povaiz] v наблю­дать {за чем-то)\ надзирать

suspect ['SAspekt] v подозревать

suspend [sos'pend] v временно от­странять; исключать

Т

temporary [Четрэгэп] а времен­ный

thief [0i:f] п вор

theft [©eft] п воровство, кража

tort [to:t] п деликт; гражданское правонарушение

treat [tri :t] v обращаться; считать; рассматривать

tribunal [trai'bju:nl] п суд, орган правосудия, судебное учреждение

U

unauthorized ['An'o:00raizd] а не­разрешенный; неправомерный; несанкционированный

V

victim ['viktim] п жертва; постра­давший

W

will [wil] п завещание

witness ['witnis] п свидетель

wholly ['houli] adv полностью, це­ликом

ОСНОВНЫЕ ЗНАЧЕНИЯ И ПРИМЕРЫ УПОТРЕБЛЕНИЯ НЕКОТОРЫХ ПРЕДЛОГОВ

ПРЕДЛОГИ, НАРЕЧИЯ И СОЮЗЫ, СОВПАДАЮЩИЕ ПО ФОРМЕ

В английском языке есть союзы, предлоги и наречия, совпада­ющие по форме. Их значение определяется функцией и местом в предложении.

Если слово стоит перед существительным или другой частью ре­чи, имеющей именные свойства, то это — предлог.

Если слово относится к глаголу (или словам, имеющим глаголь­ную основу) и имеет самостоятельное значение, выполняя функцию обстоятельства, то это — наречие.

Если слово вводит придаточное предложение или связывает од­нородные члены предложения, то это — союз.

СПИСОК СОКРАЩЕНИЙ, ВСТРЕЧАЮЩИХСЯ В ТЕХНИЧЕСКОЙ ЛИТЕРАТУРЕ

A. С. Ante Christum — лат. до нашей эры

ас alternating current — перемен­ный ток

a.m. ante meridiem — лат. до полудня

B. C. before Christ — до нашей эры

BTU British Thermal Unit — Бри­танская тепловая единица

С Centigrade — стоградусный (шкала Цельсия)

ес cubic centimetre — кубиче­ский сантиметр

cckw counter clockwise — против движения часовой стрелки

cwt hundredweight — центнер; (50,8 кг в Англии и 45,3 кг в США)

dc direct current — постоянный ток

deg. degree — градус

e.g. exsempli gratia — лат. на­пример

e. m.f. electromotive force — элек­тродвижущая сила

etc. et cetera — лат. и т.д.

Fahr. (F) Fahrenheit — шкала Фаренгейта

f. p.s feet per second — футов в се­кунду

ft. foot; feet — фут(ы) gal. gallon — галлон gr gram(me) — грамм

h (hr) hour — час hp horsepower — лошадиная сила i.e. id est — лат. то есть kv kilovolt — киловольт

kva kilovolt-ampere — кило­вольт-ампер

kw kilowatt — киловатт lb libra pound — лат. фунт m metre — метр; mile — миля; minute — минута

mm millimetre — миллиметр m.p.h. miles per hour — миль в час

p. page — страница

p.c. pro centum — лат. per cent — процент

p.m. post meridiem — лат. после полудня

psi pounds per square inch — фун­тов на квадратный дюйм

R Reaumur — шкала Реомюра

r.p.m. revolutions per minute — оборотов в минуту

r.p.s. revolutions per second — оборотов в секунду

sq. square — квадратный

t. temperature — температура; ton — тонна

viz videlicet — лат. а именно vs versus — лат. против v.v. vice versa — лат. наоборот w watt — ватт

+ plus

— minus

± plus or minus

= is equal to, equals

* does not equal

s identical, identically equal to

~ equivalent, similar (is similar to)

> is greater than < is less than -> approaches

oo varies as, is propotional to oo infinity

ab a times b; a multiplied by b

a/b the ratio of a to b; a divided by b

proportion: a is to b as с is to d

aⁿ the л-th power of a; aaa... to n factors

radical sign

*Ja square root of a

a~ⁿ the reciprocal of aⁿ\ \/aⁿ

log a common logarithm of a

logio я logarithm of a to the base 10

In a natural logarithm of a F(x), f(x) function of x У ⁼ f(^x) У is a function of x

—, f--^X^ the derivative of у

dx dx

with respect to x

the second derivative of у

doc

with respect to x a’ "[ei] prime, dash д"[еi] second, double prime, double dashed

a_n [ei] sub n, subscribed n

\ integral sign

Я double integral

( ) parentheses

[ ] brackets

{ } braces

LCM (1cm) least common multi­ple

GCD (gcd) greatest common di­visor

Z angle L right angle

J_ perpendicular (is perpendicular to)

| | parallel (is parallel to)

Д triangle о parallelogram □ square О circle

П arc; АЛВ (arc AB)

⁰ degrees (of arc or angle)

' minutes of arc or angle; foot, feet

" seconds (of arc or angle); inches

sin A — sine of A

cos A — cosine of A

tan A — tangent of A

cot A (or ctn A) - cotangent of A

sec A — secant of A

cosec A (or esc A) — cosecant of A

Addition

12 + 13 = 25 Twelve plus thirteen is (masks equals) twenty-five addend — слагаемое sum — сумма

Subtraction 71 — 24 = 47 Seventy one minus twenty four is (equals ) forty- seven

minuend — уменьшаемое subtrahend — вычитаемое remainder, difference - разность

Multiplication 8 x 6 = 48 Six times eight is forty-eight (eight multiplied by six is forty-eight) multiplicant — множимое multiplier (factor) — множитель product — произведение

Division

90 : 9 = 10 Ninety divided by nine is ten

divident — делимое divisor — делитель quotient — частное

Common fractions — a half (one second); i a quarter

(one forth)

i^three “^,enth

Proper fractions

- numerator, 3 — denomi-

Improper fractions

- numerator, 3 — denomi-

Mixed number

common denomina- 0.06 nought point nought six (0 [eu] point 0 [au] six)

.2 point two (period two, two tenth)

.37 point thirty seven (period thirty-seven)

652.47 six hundred fifty-two point forty seven (six five two point forty-seven)

1.007 one point 0 [au] 0 [au] seven

Power

raise to a power — возводить в степень

in the second power — во второй степени, в квадрате

in the third power — в третьей степени, в кубе in the n-th power — в л-ной сте­пени

З³ 3 cubed (three to the third power)

3a² three a to the second power (3 — coefficient; a — base; 2 — expo­nent)

Evolution

square root (radical sign) cubic root

V4 = 2 the square root of four is

two

Ratio

H

у =f(x) у is a function of x dy' df(x)

dx ’ dx respect to x

d ² у

the second derivative of

do?

у with respect to x

1 one; a unit single; once

2 two; a pair; a couple; double; twice; twice the number; twice as much

3 three; triple; three times 12 a dozen

20 a score

ТАБЛИЦА НЕСТАНДАРТНЫХ ГЛАГОЛОВ (LIST OF NON-STANDARD VERBS)

ОГЛАВЛЕНИЕ

И.В. Орловская, JI.C. Самсонова, А.И. Скубриева 2

для технических университетов и вузов 3

2006 3

LESSON 1. 5

LESSON 2. 25

LESSON 3. 46

REVISION OF LESSONS 1-3. 66

LESSON 5. 89

LESSON 6. 113

REVISION OF LESSONS 4-6. 132

LESSON 7. 137

LESSON 8. 160

LESSON 9. 182

REVISION OF LESSONS 7-9. 202

LESSON 10. 205

LESSON 11. 226

LESSON 12. 244

REVISION OF LESSONS 10-12. 269

SUPPLEMENTARY TEXTS. 272

ОГЛАВЛЕНИЕ. 469

Краткий поурочный грамматический справочник . . . 280 Lesson 1

§ 1. Глагол to be (280). § 2. Глагол to have (280). § 3. Обо­рот There + be в Simple Active (281). § 4. Личные и при­тяжательные местоимения (Personal and Possessive Pronouns) (282). § 5. Времена группы Simple Active (283).

§ 6. Порядок слов в утвердительном, вопросительном и отрицательном предложениях (286). § 7. Основные фор­мы глаголов (287). § 8. Страдательный залог (The Passive Voice) (287). § 9. Особенности перевода пассивной кон­струкции (288). § 10. Предлог (The Preposition) (288).

Lesson 2

§11. Времена группы Continuous (290). § 12. Функции и перевод it (292). § 13. Функции и перевод one (293). § 14. Функции и перевод that (293). § 15. Степени срав­нения прилагательных и наречий (Comparison Degrees of Adjective and Adverbs) (295).

Lesson 3

§ 16. Времена группы Perfect (296). § 17. Соответствие английских временных форм временным формам гла­гола в русском языке (299). § 18. Сводная таблица образования и употребления времен (изъявительное на­клонение) (300).

Lesson 4

§ 19. Согласование времен (Sequence of Tenses) (301). § 20. Согласование времен (302). § 21. Дополнение (The Object) (303).

Lesson 5

§ 22. Определение (The Attribute) (303). § 23. Неопреде­ленные местоимения some, any, no, every и их производ­ные (306).

Lesson 6

§ 24. Модальные глаголы (The Modal Verbs) (306). § 25. Функции глагола to be (309). § 26. Функции глагола to have (310).

Lesson 7

§ 27. Причастие (The Participle) (310). § 28. Функции причастия в предложении. Основные способы перевода (311). § 29. Независимый причастный оборот (314). Lesson 8

§ 30. Герундий (The Gerund) (315).

Lesson 9

§ 31. Условные придаточные предложения (Conditional Sentences) (318).

Lesson 10

§ 32. Инфинитив (The Infinitive) (320). § 33. Инфини­тивный оборот с предлогом for (322).

Lesson 11

§ 34. Инфинитив как часть сложного дополнения (The Complex Object) (323). § 35. Инфинитив как часть слож­ного подлежащего (The Complex Subject) (324).

Lesson 12

§ 36. Сослагательное наклонение (The Subjunctive Mood) (325). § 37. Употребление различных форм сосла­гательного наклонения (326). § 38. Особенности страда­тельного залога (328).

Англо-русский словарь........................ 329

Приложение 1. Дополнительные материалы для

факультета «Инженерный бизнес и менеджмент» . . 383

Приложение 2. Дополнительные материалы для

специальности «Юриспруденция»...... 405

Приложение 3. Основные значения и примеры

употребления некоторых предлогов... 428

Приложение 4. Наиболее употребительные союзы . . . 430 Приложение 5. Предлоги, наречия и союзы,

совпадающие по форме....................... 431

Приложение 6. Наиболее употребительные

суффиксы............................................. 433

Приложение 7. Наиболее употребительные

префиксы.............................................. 435

Приложение 8. Список сокращений, встречающихся

в технической литературе.................... 436

Приложение 9. Список наиболее употребительных

математических знаков........................ 437

Приложение 10. Таблица нестандартных глаголов

(List of Non-Standard Verbs)................ 440

Учебное издание

Ирина Валентиновна Орловская Лидия Сергеевна Самсонова Алла Ивановна Скубриева

УЧЕБНИК АНГЛИЙСКОГО ЯЗЫКА ДЛЯ СТУДЕНТОВ ТЕХНИЧЕСКИХ УНИВЕРСИТЕТОВ И ВУЗОВ

Редактор Е.Н. Ставицкая Художник С. С. Водчиц Корректор О.Ю. Соколова Компьютерная верстка М. В. Самохиной

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1. The problem that has become the most important one is the problem of pollution. 2. One can easily understand why the profes­sion of an engineer requires a special college training 3. The new technologies that are being developed must be connected with tra­ditional ones. 4. That air and water pollution by industrialization is reaching dangerous levels is realized by everyone. 5. It is the inven­tion of an engine that started the first industrial revolution. 6. The main purpose of education is that graduates must be able to work

1. It was reported in 1939 that the first TV set was shown at the World Fair in New York. 2. The students wanted to know whether

colour television sets were produced at that plant. 3. After the war

1. Isaac Newton stated that a body would continue moving un­less some force was applied to stop it. 2. Space flights would be im­possible unless special materials for space vehicles were produced. 3. We should have no radio, telephone, television or computers un­less there were electricity. 4. The earth temperature would increase indefinitely unless heat were radiated. 5. Unless the temperature rises, the speed of the molecules will not increase. 6. It would have

1. In a new apparatus rotors mounted on the fuselage provide lift acting as wings when the craft is moving at high velocity. 2. The aerostatic apparatuses of the latest design can vary its lift force.

3. The man can’t lift this weight, it can be lifted only automati­cally. 4. When weight is lifted to a given level, it possesses potential

1. Materials used for superliner structures must be strong enough to withstand the air resistance at high speeds. 2. The «night vision» system is to be small enough to be used in automobiles.

I ... now in the garage on Seventh Street. There ... three cars here. One ... a Ford. There ... a man in it. He ... buying a tire. One car ... a Buick. There ... five people in it. There ... a third car. A man and his wife ... in it. Their battery ... dead. The two battery men ... looking at it. «I... sure you will have to rent a battery», one man says. «We ... a long way from home», the man in the car an­swers. «We .... not here often. We must buy a battery. There ... nothing else to do».

Упражнение 20. Дайте недостающие формы глаголов, запомните их.

chosen, fed, costing, put, overcome, coming, made.

1. time to disintegrate

2. the duration of the pulse

3. to be encountered

4. in just a fraction of a second

1. One more present-day complicated problem to be solved is that of combining laser and thermonuclear reaction to produce a practically limitless source of energy. 2. A Japanese company is planning to install several more electronic devices on the car in­strument panel. 3. The Voice Warning System is one more elec­tronic device. 4. If you make half-hour breaks while getting ready for your exams, your brain will work much more efficiently.

[1] Students asked the lecturer many questions. The lecturer was asked many questions. 2. The monitor told the first-year students to come to the laboratory. The first-year students were told to come to the laboratory. 3. Usually a lab assistant shows the equipment to the students. Usually the equipment is shown to the students by a lab assistant. Usually students are shown the equipment by a lab as­sistant. 4. Students watched the process with great attention. The process was watched with great attention. 5. Tomorrow our teacher

[2] Cambridge University was formed in the 12th century. 2. The solution of ecological problems may be achieved only by joint efforts of all countries. 3. Great changes in people’s lives and work were brought about by the scientific and technological progress. 4. The theory of interaction of atmospheric and oceanic processes is being developed to determine the weather of the planet. 5. The teachers at Cambridge are called «dons» or «tutors». 6. Computers and la-

[3] That electricity is clean and easily-regulated is its great ad­vantage. 2. The important fact is that electricity offers improved service at reduced cost. 3. That the two scientists Lodygyn and Yablochkov were the first in Russia to work in the field of electrical engineering is well-known. 4. One of the main advantages of elec­tricity is that it does not pollute the environment. 5. The indicator of nation development is how much electricity is consumed per ca­pita. 6. What has been and is being done in environment protection cannot be measured by yesterday’s standards.

when the mass production of TV sets began, people realized they wanted to have a TV set at home. 4. Experiments proved that elec­

tricity could travel instantly over a long piece of wire. 5. Can you

tell me whether satellites are used for telephone communication?

[7] It became clear television had a great influence on people’s life.

[8] Flying from Los Angeles to Tokyo on board a new supersonic craft will take two hours. 2. On examining the car before starting on a long journey a driver can be sure that he will get to his destination without accidents. 3. By summing up the information about the speed and distance of various objects on the road, the computer de-

[9] If a scientific research is closely linked with practice, the re­sults are always good. 2. If you looked at the equipment of 1946,

[10] Laser means «light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation». 2. Laser produces an intensive beam of light. 3. In the next few years laser will become one of the main technological tools. 4. Martians almost invaded the Earth before the turn of the last century. 5. Laser and thermonuclear reaction can produce a limited source of energy. 6. The laser beam heats the fuel so quickly that the plasma disintegrates. 7. There are projects to transform lu-