Text 2. How Laws are Passed in the UK

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Вопросы к зачету/экзамену

I. Грамматический материал:

1) Имя существительное (притяжательный падеж, множественное число)

2) Артикль (употребление определенного, неопределенного артикля, отсутствие артикля)

3) Имя прилагательное (образование степеней сравнения)

4) Имя числительное (образование количественных и порядковых числительных)

5) Спряжение глагола-связки “to be” (в настоящем, прошедшем и будущем времени в утвердительной, отрицательной и вопросительной форме)

6) Время Present Simple (указатели времени, образование и употребление времени)

7) Время Past Simple (указатели времени, образование и употребление времени)

8) Время Future Simple (указатели времени, образование и употребление времени)

9) 5 типов вопросов

10) Времена группы Continuous

11) Времена группы Perfect

12) Времена группы Perfect Continuous

II. 1.Лексический материал профессиональной направленности

2. Профессионально-ориентированные тексты

III.II.I. Лексический материал

Words and Word Combinations

III.II.II. Тексты.

The Ancient Systems of Law

The oldest codes of law from anywhere in the world is that of Ur-Nammu, the Summerian king who lived in the 21^st century B.C. The next known is again in Sumerian; it was promulgated under Lipit-Ishtar (about 1850—1840 B.C.), the ruler of Isin. All of these codes date from before Hammurapi. As we have noted, he was not the first ruler of Mesopotamia to issue a collection of laws; but his code was so far ahead of anything previously attempted that we must regard it as the apex of legal codification prior to Roman Law. In fact, Hammurapi's Code is the best mirror of Mesopotamian society. Hammurapi ordered to cave this code into a great stone stele. This stele was set up in a temple to the Babylonian god Marduk and every citizen could read it. After the fall of Babylon in the 16^th century B.C. the stele was lost for centuries and lay buried until French archaeologists unearthed it in 1901—1902. It is now in the Louvre museum in Paris. Hammurapi's Code is carefully arranged laws aiming at regulating society in clear language. It covered crime, divorce and marriage, slaveholding, theft and property ownership and even kidnapping.

Another ancient code is the code of Hebrew Law contained in the Book of Exodus in the Bible.

In Greece each city state had its own law, some laws were common to many states. In the seventh century B.C. the Greeks began to put their laws into writing. About 594 B.C. Solon, the famous Athenian lawgiver, provided a new code of law. He was not without some experience in matters of law

and justice before he was chosen as lawgiver. The judicial reforms of Solon, which secured a minimum of popular participation in the administration of justice and laid the foundation of democracy, are among the most important in Athenian history. The Athenians did not consider it necessary to have legal experts for non-criminal cases. In a civil case the verdict was given by a jury, which might number anything from 201 to 2,500. The members of the jury listened to speeches made by persons who had brought the case before them, and by their friends. Barristers did not participate in court proceedings, but professional speech-writers sometimes prepared speeches.

Roman Law is one of the greatest systems that has ever existed. It was based upon custom, and by A.D. 528 the quantity of Roman Law had become so immense that the Emperor Justinian in Constantinople ordered to make a clear, systematic code of all the laws. Roman Law had a deep influence upon the law of the world. It had a strong influence on the law of most European countries and some influence on Anglo-Saxon law, which is the other great law system of the world. After many years Roman Law reappeared in the eleventh century, when there was a great revival of learning. Many European countries began to use Roman Law in their courts. Notes

Hebrew Law [ 'hibru:] – древнееврейское право

Book of Exodus [ 'eksadas ] – Исход (2-я книга ветхого Завета)

B.C. (Before Christ) – до нашей эры

A.D. (Anno Domini) – нашей эры

Text 2. How Laws are Passed in the UK

Nearly all important bills are introduced by the Government. About fifty bills are passed each year, some short, some long, some needing much discussion. Once the Government has decided to introduce a bill, a minister is put in charge of it. The preparation of the text may take many months, with long consultations involving civil servants in the minister's department on the one hand and Parliamentary Counsel on the other.

At last the bill is ready to be submitted to Parliament. It will have to be passed by both Houses of Parliament, one after the other. It can begin its journey in either the House of Commons or the House of Lords, though all really important bills are in fact submitted to the House of Commons first.

The typical bill of moderate importance, then, will begin in the House of Commons. According to very ancient practice, it must have three "readings" there. The "first reading" is in effect merely an announcement that the bill is coming forward. Then after being in circulation for a reasonable length of time (usually one or two weeks at least) it goes to the 'second reading". This is the main debate on the general principles of the bill, and at the end of the debate a vote is taken. The important thing about this stage is not the final decision, but the words spoken in the debate, the arguments for and against, the discussion of principles and of details from many points of view.

After the bill has passed its second reading, a "standing committee" of up to forty-five MPs is set up to consider it in detail. The bill is printed in clauses and committee members may propose changes to the text. After the committee has finished with the bill, the next stage is called "the report stage". The House itself now repeats the committee stage, though taking much less time. The House has before it the new text of the bill, incorporating the committee's amendments. Some new amendments are proposed and there may be further discussion of the amendments which were proposed in committee but withdrawn so as to give the minister time to examine them thoroughly.

The last stage is the debate on the proposal to "read the bill a third time". This debate is usually short. It is a final review and discussion of the bill as it stands after amendment.

Next the bill must go through the same stages in the House of Lords. If the House of Lords rejects a bill which has been passed by the Commons,

the bill can go no further for a few months; but if the Commons pass it again, in the same form as before, it must go to the Queen for her signature no matter what the Lords do. The Lords can merely delay bills which they don't like.

A bill becomes an Act of Parliament when the Queen signs it.