Adherence to rules and regulations
They are meticulous and inclined to follow rules and regulations and as a result decision making is a slow and systematic progress. Interestingly most of the codes of governance, justice and bureaucratic documentation have drawn heavily from the British traditions. Most of the Indian legal documents like the Indian Penal code have been derived from the British systems. Queuing and waiting for your turn is an accepted form of behaviour. People wait patiently for their turn even to board a bus!
PRIVACY
They respect personal space. The British value their space and keeping an acceptable distance is advised. Quite similar to the Americans, the British respect personal space as well. It is considered impolite to ask questions regarding a person’s background, occupation and income. This seems so far removed from the Indian approach to small talk which often starts with curious enquiries about your family, occupation perhaps even income. However the difference is not something to be looked down upon, rather one understands and accept it in the context of our traditions and values.
GENDER EQUALITY
We take for granted nowadays that almost any woman can have a career if she applies herself. We take for granted that women can choose whether or not to marry, and whether or not to have children, and how many. Women in Britain are entitled to equal respect and status with men in all areas of life and tend to have more independence and responsibility than in some other cultures. There are equal opportunities for work in every sphere for life. Women can travel around, on their own, go out for a drink or eat alone at a restaurant. Women have become an increasingly important element of the labour force. There is no discrimination in remuneration for work between men and women.
Typically British (some facts)
STEREOTYPES AND CHANGE
Societies change over time while their reputations lag behind. Many things which are often regarded as typically British derive from books, songs or plays which were written a long time ago and which are no longer representative of modern life. One example of this is the popular belief that Britain is a 'land of tradition'. This is what most tourist brochures claim. The claim is based on what can be seen in public life and on centuries of political continuity. And at this level - the level of public life - it is undoubtedly true. The annual ceremony of the state opening of Parliament, for instance, carefully follows customs which are centuries old. So does the military ceremony of 'trooping the colour'. Likewise, the changing of the guard outside Buckingham Palace never changes.
However, in their private everyday lives, the British as individuals are probably less inclined to follow tradition than are the people of most other countries. There are very few ancient customs that are followed by the majority of families on special occasions. The country has fewer local parades or processions with genuine folk roots than most other countries have. The English language has fewer sayings or proverbs that are in common everyday use than many other languages do. The British are too individualistic for these things. In addition, it should be noted that they are the most enthusiastic video-watching people in the world - the very opposite of a traditional pastime!
There are many examples of supposedly typical British habits which are simply not typical any more. For example, the stereotyped image of the London 'city gent' includes the
wearing of a bowler hat. In fact, this type of hat has not been commonly worn for a long time. Food and drink provide other examples. The traditional 'British' (or 'English') breakfast is a large 'fry-up' preceded by cereal with milk and followed by toast, butter and marmalade, all washed down with lots of tea. In fact, only about 10% of the people in Britain actually have this sort of breakfast. Two-thirds have cut out the fry-up and just have the cereal, tea and toast. The rest have even less. What the vast majority of British people have in the mornings is therefore much closer to what they call a 'continental' (i.e. European) breakfast than it is to a 'British' one. The image of the British as a nation of tea-drinkers is another stereotype which is somewhat out of date. It is true that it is still prepared in a distinctive way (strong and with milk), but more coffee than tea is now bought in the country's shops. As for the tradition of afternoon tea with biscuits, scones, sandwiches or cake, this is a minority activity, largely confined to retired people and the leisured upper-middle class (although preserved in tea shops in tourist resorts).
MULTICULTURALISM
The third reason for caution about generalizations relates to the large-scale immigration to Britain from places outside the British Isles in the twentieth century. In its cities at least, Britain is a multicultural society. There are areas of London, for example, in which a distinctively Indian way of life predominates, with Indian shops, Indian clothes, Indian languages. Because in the local schools up to 90% of the pupils may be Indian, a distinctively Indian style of learning tends to take place.
These 'new British' people have brought widely differing sets of attitudes with them. For example, while some seem to care no more about education for their children than people in traditional English culture, others seem to care about it a great deal more.
However, the divergence from indigenous British attitudes in new British communities is constantly narrowing. These communities sometimes have their own newspapers but none have their own TV stations as they do in the United States. There, the numbers in such communities are larger and the physical space between them and other communities is greater, so that it is possible for people to live their whole lives in such communities without ever really learning English. This hardly ever happens in Britain.
It is therefore still possible to talk about British characteristics in general (as the rest of this chapter does). In fact, the new British have made their own contribution to British life and attitudes. They have probably helped to make people more informal (see below); they have changed the nature of the 'corner shop', the most popular, well-attended festival in the whole of Britain is the annual Notting Hill Carnival in London at the end of August, which is of Caribbean inspiration and origin.
CONSERVATISM
The British have few living folk traditions and are too individualistic to have the same everyday habits as each other. However, this does not mean that they like change. They don't. They may not behave in traditional ways, but they like symbols of tradition and stability. For example, there are some very untraditional attitudes and habits with regard to the family in modern Britain. Nevertheless, politicians often cite their enthusiasm for 'traditional family values' (both parents married and living together, parents as the main source of authority for children etc) as a way of winning support.
In general, the British value continuity over modernity for its own sake. They do not consider it especially smart to live in a new house and, in fact, there is prestige in living in an obviously old one. They have a general sentimental attachment to older, supposedly safer, times. Their Christmas cards usually depict scenes from past centuries; they like their pubs to look old; they were reluctant to change their system of currency.
Moreover, a look at children's reading habits suggests that this attitude is not going to change. Publishers try hard to make their books for children up-to-date. But perhaps they needn't try so hard. In 1992 the two most popular children's writers were noticeably unmodern (they were both, in fact, dead). The most popular of all was Roald Dahl, whose fantasy stories are set in a rather old-fashioned world. The second most popular writer was Enid Blyton, whose stories take place in a comfortable white middle-class world before the 1960s. They contain no references to other races or classes and mention nothing more modern than a radio. In other words, they are mostly irrelevant to modern life.
BEING DIFFERENT
The British can be particularly and stubbornly conservative about anything which is perceived as a token of Britishness. In these matters, their conservatism can combine with their individualism; they are rather proud of being different. It is, for example, very difficult to imagine that they will ever agree to change from driving on the left-hand side of the road to driving on the right. It doesn't matter that nobody can think of any intrinsic advantage in driving on the left. Why should they change just to be like everyone else? Indeed, as far as they are concerned, not being like everyone else is a good reason not to change.
Developments at European Union (EU) level which might cause a change in some everyday aspect of British life are usually greeted with suspicion and hostility. The British government has been trying for years and years to promote the metric system and to get British people to
use the same scales that are used nearly everywhere else in the world. But it has had only limited success. Everybody in Britain still shops in pounds and ounces. The weather forecasters on the television use the Celsius scale of temperature. But nearly everybody still thinks in Fahrenheit. British people continue to measure distances, amounts of liquid and themselves using scales of measurement that are not used anywhere else in Europe. Even the use of the 24-hour clock is comparatively restricted.
British governments continue to put their clocks back at the end of summer on a different date from every other country in Europe; they have so far resisted pressure from business people to adopt Central European Time, remaining stubbornly one hour behind; they continue to start their financial year not, as other countries do, at the beginning of the calendar year but at the beginning of April!
THE LOVE OF NATURE
Most of the British live in towns and cities. But they have an idealized vision of the countryside. To the British, the countryside has almost none of the negative associations which it has in some countries, such as poor facilities, lack of educational opportunities, unemployment and poverty. To them, the countryside means peace and quiet, beauty, good health and no crime. Most of them would live in a country village if they thought that they could find a way of earning a living there.
Ideally, this village would consist of thatched cottages built around an area of grass known as a `village green'. Nearby, there would be a pond with ducks on it. Nowadays such a village is not actually very common, but it is a stereotypical picture that is well-known to the British.
Perhaps this love of the countryside is another aspect of British conservatism. The countryside represents stability. Those who live in towns and cities take an active interest in country matters and the British regard it as both a right and a privilege to be able to go `into the country' whenever they want to. Large areas of the country are official 'national parks' where almost no building is allowed. There is an organization to which thousands of enthusiastic country walkers belong, the Ramblers' Association. It is in constant battle with landowners to keep open the public 'rights of way' across their lands. Maps can be bought which mark, in great detail, the routes of all the public footpaths in the country. Walkers often stay at youth hostels. The Youth Hostels Association is a charity whose aim is 'to help all, especially young people of limited means, to a greater knowledge, love and care of the countryside'. Their hostels are cheap and rather self-consciously bare and simple. There are more than 300 of them around the country, most of them in the middle of nowhere!
Even if they cannot get into the countryside, many British people still spend a lot of their time with 'nature'. They grow plants. Gardening is one of the most popular hobbies in the country. Even those unlucky people who do not have a garden can participate. Each local authority owns several areas of land which it rents very cheaply to these people in small parcels. On these 'allotments', people grow mainly vegetables.
THE NATIONAL TRUST
A notable indication of the British reverence for both the countryside and the past is the strength of the National Trust. This is an officially recognized charity whose aim is to preserve as much of Britain's countryside and as many of its historic buildings as possible by acquiring them "for the nation". With more than one-and-a-half million members, it is the largest conservation organization in the world. It is actually the third largest landowner in Britain (after the Crown and the Forestry Commission). It owns more than 50 miles of the coastline. The importance of its work has been supported by several laws, among which is one which does not allow even the government to take over any of its land without the approval of Parliament.
THE LOVE OF ANIMALS
Rossendale Pet Cemetery in Lancashire is just one example of an animal graveyard in Britain. It was started by a local farmer who ran over his dog with a tractor. He was so upset that he put up a headstone in memory of his dog. Now, Rossendale has thousands of graves and plots for caskets of ashes, with facilities for every kind of animal, from a budgie to a lioness. Many people are prepared to pay quite large sums of money to give their pets a decent burial (a trait they share with many Americans). As this example shows, the British tend to have a sentimental attitude to animals. Nearly half of the households in Britain keep at least one domestic pet. Most of them do not bother with such grand arrangements when their pets die, but there are millions of informal graves in people's back gardens. Moreover, the status of pets is taken seriously. It is, for example, illegal to run over a dog in your car and then keep on driving. You have to stop and inform the owner.
But the love of animals goes beyond sentimental attachment to domestic pets. Wildlife programmes are by far the most popular kind of television documentary. Millions of families have `bird-tables' in their gardens. These are raised platforms on which birds can feed, safe from local cats, during the winter months. There is even a special-' hospital (St Tiggywinkles) which treats injured wild animals.
Perhaps this overall concern for animals is part of the British lore of nature. Studies indicating that some wild species of bird or mamma'- is decreasing in numbers become prominent articles in the national press. Thousands of people are enthusiastic bird-watchers. This peculiarly British pastime often involves spending hours lying in wet and colt undergrowth, trying to get a glimpse of some rare species.
FORMALITY AND INFORMALITY
The tourist view of Britain involves lots of formal ceremonies. Some people have drawn the conclusion from this that the British are rather formal in their general behaviour. This is not true. There is a difference between observing formalities and being formal in everyday life. Attitudes towards clothes are a good indication of this difference. It all depends on whether a person is playing a public role or a private role. When people are 'on duty', they have to obey some quite rigid rules. A male bank employee, for example, is expected to wear a suit with a tie, even if he cannot afford a very smart one.
On the other hand, when people are not playing a public role - when they are just being themselves - there seem to be no rules at all. The British are probably more tolerant of ,strange' clothing than people in most other countries. You may find, for example, the same bank employee, on his lunch break in ho-weather, walking through the streets with hip tie round his waist and his collar unbuttoned. He is no longer 'at work' and for his employers to criticize him for his appearance would be seen as a gross breach of privacy. Perhaps because of the clothing formalities that many people have to follow during the week, the British, unlike the people of many other countries, like to 'dress down' on Sundays. They can't wait to take off their respectable working clothes and slip into something really scruffy. Lots of men who wear suits during the week can then be seen in old sweaters and jeans, sometimes with holes in them. And male politicians are keen to get themselves photographed not wearing a tie when `officially' on holiday, to show that they are really ordinary people.
This difference between formalities and formality is the key to what people from other countries sometimes experience as coldness among the British. The key is this: being friendly in Britain often involves showing that you are not bothering with the formalities. This means not addressing someone by his or her title (Mr, Mrs, Professor etc), not dressing smartly when entertaining guests, not shaking hands when meeting and not saying 'please' when making a request. When they avoid doing these things with you, the British are not being unfriendly or disrespectful, they are implying that you are in the category 'friend', and so all the rules can be ignored. To address someone by his or her title or to say 'please' is to observe formalities and therefore to put a distance between the people involved. The same is true of shaking hands. Although this sometimes has the reputation of being a very British thing to do, it is actually rather rare. Most people would do it only when being introduced to a stranger or when meeting an acquaintance (but not a friend) after a long time. Similarly, most British people do not feel welcomed if, on being invited to somebody's house, they find the hosts in smart clothes and a grand table set for them.
They do not feel flattered by this, they feel intimidated. It makes them feel they can't relax.
It is probably true that the British, especially the English, are more reserved than the people of many other countries. They find it comparatively difficult to indicate friendship by open displays of affection. For example, it is not the convention to kiss when meeting a friend. Instead, friendship is symbolized by behaving as casually as possible. If you are in a British person's house, and you are told to `help yourself' to something, your host is not being rude or suggesting that you are of no importance - he or she is showing that you are completely accepted and just like 'one of the family'.
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History of the USA
A) Periods of the American History
I. Early Colonization: a) the Indians (≈ 10,000 – 30,000 BC)
b) the Vikings (11th c. AD)
II. European Discoveries (15th c.)
III. The First Colonies (16-17th cc.)
IV. The War of Independence / the American Revolution (1775-1783)
V. The Civil War/ the War between the North and the South (1861-1865)
VI. Modern Time (20th c. – up till now)
B) Early Colonization
a) the Indians
Approximately 10,000 – 30,000 BC a few groups of tribes came to the territory of North America from Asia through Bering Strait. They were mainly hunters, who followed animal herds. Later on their descendants became known as “Indians”.
NB! American culture is greatly influenced by the Natives (Indians). Some of the tribes, living today in reservations, try to retain their identity and culture through teaching their young at schools and sticking to their customs and traditions. Besides, countless tourists come to the reservations to dive into the Indian culture and buy some memorabilia (souvenirs). As soon as you cast a glance at the map of the USA you may notice quite a number of Indian names. Thus, 28 States have the names of the Indian origin: Dakota (= “friend” from Sioux language), Utah (= “upper hand” from Navajo language), Iowa (= “the sleepy one” from Dakota language). Other place-names include Massachusetts, Ohio, Michigan, the Mississippi, Missouri, etc. Some Indian words came into usage in the World Languages, as well as English: wigwam (Indian house), tomahawk (type of tapering axe), squaw (a wife), moose, skunk, canoe (an Indian boat), moccasins (shoes), etc.
b) the Vikings
In the year 1000 AD an expedition was organized headed by Leif Ericson (nicknamed “Lucky Leif”) to discover the lands lying in the north and north-west. It was a success as they had found a new land. They landed on the northern tip of Newfoundland Island (Canada) and founded a settlement there. They called it “Vinland (the Good)”, because of the vine that grew there in big amounts. After Ericson there were some attempts to settle there but they failed and left.
For quite a time this discovery had been forgotten until 1960s when the archeologists found traces of the Viking settlements in Newfoundland and New England. The evidences found were also supported by the Vikings’ “sagas” (legends) about Leif Ericson his travel from Greenland to North America.
C) European Discoveries
In 1492 an expedition headed by Christopher Columbus was organized with the help of Spanish Crown. Columbus had an ambitious idea of discovering the new way to India. The existing ways were dangerous and took much time. He supposed that the journey won’t be so problematic if one sailed westwards. There he intended to load his ships with silk, gold and spices and return to Europe. In October 1492 he landed on the island of San Salvador (the Bahamas). He believed that he had actually come to India and the people who greeted him were “Indians” (“los Indios”). But he never understood that he was not far from the shores of the new continent.
In 1493 the second expedition of Columbus was organized with the help of an Italian nobleman, Amerigo Vespucci. Later on the Italian undertook 4 voyages himself. As the result the map of the New World appeared, depicting the coastal outline of the new continent. And some time later the new land got the name “America”
NB! Why America is called “America”? Though Columbus was the first to discover the New World, he believed that he discovered part of Asia. Amerigo Vespucci had done a lot more to correct the “mistake of Columbus”. During his voyages he wrote a number of letters describing his exploration of the South American coast. He was also convinced that this coast was the new continent. It’s due to his letters that the German scholar got the idea of the New Continent and that the Italian was correct. To honour him the scholar gave the continents the feminine version of Vespucci’s first name, as the other continents had feminine names.
D) the First Colonies
After Columbus there were many trips to explore the land by the Spanish, the Dutch, the French and the English.