2. The Celts built hill-forts - protected towns/economic centres.
3. The Celts introduced money in the form of iron bars, later (a Roman borrowing) - coins.
The Celts wore knee-length trousers and checked cloaks fastened by pins (that explains the origin of the Scottish tartan). They were careful about cleanliness and neatness. However poor, stated the Romans, they were never seen ragged or dirty.
4. The Celts were technologically advanced. They knew the how to work iron.
b. Social System
• kings;
• warriors Druids(priests + warriors)
• free farmers.
The Druids were a religious group among the Celtic tribes. They are thought to have a great status in the Celtic society and were feared by the people and at the same time were respected. They were considered to be the priests, doctors and warriors, who helped people in times of trouble. They could not read or write but they memorised religious teachings, tribal laws, history and medicine. As the Celts were pagans (язычники), they believed that everything in the natural world possessed its spirit. The Druids worshipped nature, esp. plants. They usually met in the forests among trees, on hills and by rivers. Some scientists think that Stonehenge was the place where they committed rituals, some of which may have been connected with human sacrifice and cannibalism.
c. Cultural aspects
The Celts also had their own ancient alphabet called Ogham.
There existed the equality of the sexes in the Celtic society - there were women-warriors, women-queens, etc.
There was also a slavery system. The slaves were obtained from numerous wars and conflicts.
2) Language:
a. Place names
Llyn-dyn = “a fortress near the lake” = ModE London; Kent; Llanelly (‘church’)
b. geographical names
the Severn, the Avon, the Ouse (‘water’)
c. influences on English language and modern Celtic ones
Celtic influence is felt as soon as you get to GB. Different parts of the country don’t observe the “Queen’s English” & rules of English. Historically, the parts of Celtic settlement were Wales, Scotland and Ireland.
Thus, in Wales there are 2 official languages: Welsh & English; in the Scottish Highlands they speak Scottish Gaelic alongside with English; in the Republic of Ireland – the Irish Gaelic & English.
The English language is affected by the national languages in some other parts too.
Celtic language is characterized by a great number of sonorant sounds in succession, which form syllables, that fact makes the language sound more melodic and musical.
e.g. Irish Gaelic: geimhread [dξaiəriə] = ‘winter’; beaudchais [`bekəs] = ‘thanks’
Welsh: cwrw [`kuru] = ‘beer’; ghoti [fiζ] = enough [f], women [i], nation [ζ]
| English | Irish Gaelic: | Welsh: | Scottish Gaelic: |
| man woman girl boy beautiful handsome tree | fear bhean càilin gasùr àllainn dòihiùl crann | gwr [gur] gwaragedd [waraig] merch [merh] bachgen [bahgen] teg glan pren [pren] | daoine boirean bean/ nibean balach alainn /boidhche bonnie craobh |
3) Traditions & Customs:
Halloween – All Saints’ Day (‘hallow’ = saint)
According to the Celtic tradition the year ended on the 31st of October, and New Year started on the 1st of November. On the eve it was believed that all the bad spirits gather together to have some fun. To protect themselves from them people dressed some costumes and put carved pumpkin lantern on the window sills to give protection for the house.
When Christianity came to GB the tradition was adopted and the holiday got its second name. In the mid XIX th century the Irish brought this tradition to the USA, where it became popular with children. With time the tradition to celebrate Halloween spread to Europe and became very popular not only with children but also with the grownups.
As the Celts were pagans and worshiped nature (mainly plants), they often attributed some magical powers to plants. They could heal and provide protection from the evil forces and guidance from the gods.
Oak occupied a special position in Celtic believes. The forests where they grew were considered sacred and only special priests (the Druids) were allowed to come into them. The tree was valued as the symbol of the ancient long wisdom and strength.
Mistletoe (омела)was another sacred plant, which was associated with Bell (the God of Knowledge). This plant grows on the oak, thus being sacred for the Celts. They used to hang it above the doorframe to protect the house from the incoming evil. Even nowadays, there’s a belief, that when two people (a man and a woman) accidentally stand under a bunch of mistletoe hanging above the doorframe they would have to kiss.
Holly (падуб) used to decorate homes of the Celts at the end of the Sempre to give protection from the evil spirits. Nowadays wreaths with holly and other plants decorate the doors and houses of people during Christmas time.
Witson is one of the adopted Christian holidays (‘Palm Sunday’), when people decorate houses with branches of birch trees.
The Romans
In the Ist century BC Rome was engaged in conquering new lands and territories. Towards the middle of the century the Emperor Julius Caesar was trying to submit Gaelia, but met a very strong resistance from the Gaels. The thing was that the Gaels from the continent were having constant supply of food and weapon from their kinsmen living in Britain. Caesar understood that in order to conquer Gaelia he would have to subdue the people living in Britain. So to realize his plan he organized several attempts to invade the country.
55 BC – the first attempt of the Romans to invade Britain was organized by Julius Caesar. Although the expedition contained 10 thousand men, it turned out to be a failure. The resistance was very strong.
54 BC – the 2nd attempt was made. But this time a larger army of 25 thousand men was taken. So the expedition was a successful one. The Britons accepted the terms, which were put by Caesar. He withdrew his troops on condition that the Britons would pay a regular tribute to Rome. He left with a large booty and a great number of slaves. This was the beginning of the occupation of Britain.
43AD-410 – the total occupation of the British territory began under the command of Emperor Claudius, and lasted up to the Vth century.
As soon as they stepped on the British territory the Romans started to spread their influence. But it was not an easy task as the Celts fought fiercely against them. Some Celtic tribes had to move farther into the island, to Wales and Scotland.
Different parts of Britain were under the Roman influence: the Southern & Central parts were known as “Britania Prima”, while Northern & Western parts – as “Britania Secunda”. The former somewhat resembled Rome in the way of life that was there with the same slavery system and organization of cities. The latter was mainly used for military and defence purpose, thus receiving less of the Roman influence.
The Roman control came to an end as the Roman Empire began to collapse. The Romans were gradually leaving the country going back home to protect the Empire. The left Romanized Celts alone to fight the Scots in the north, the Irish in the west and the Anglo-Saxons that started to arrive from the mainland.