America – Russia and the Cold War
1945 – 1990
The Cold War has dominated American life since 1945. It has cost American $4 trillion in defense expenditures, taken the lives of nearly 100,000 of their young men, ruined the careers of many others during the MacCarthyite witch hunts, led the nation into the horrors of Southeast Asian conflicts, and in the 1980s triggered the worst economic depression in forty years. It has not been the most satisfying in American diplomatic history.
These tragedies can only be understood… by understanding the causes of this struggle between the United States and Russia. This conflict did not begin in 1945 or even with the communist victory in Russia during 1917. The two powers did not initially come into conflict because one was communist and the other capitalist. Rather, they first confronted one another on the plains of north China and Manchuria in the late nineteenth century. That meeting climaxed a century in which Americans had expanded westward over half the globe and Russians had moved eastward Asia.
Until that confrontation the two nations had been good friends…
When on June 22, 1941, Nazi armies swept into the Soviet Union in history’s greatest military operations, the State Department debated for twenty-four hours before issuing an announcement that condemned the Soviet view of religion, declared the “communistic dictatorship” was as intolerable as “Nazi dictatorship”, said nothing good about the Russians, but concluded they must be helped since Hitler posed the larger threat…
A honeymoon never occurred. Despite exchanges of military information and mearly $11 billion of American lend-lease supplies sent to Russia, conflicts quickly erupted over war strategy and plans for the postwar peace…
During early 1946 Stalin and Churchill issued their declarations of Cold War. …The Soviet dictator announced that … war was inevitable as long as capitalism existed. The Soviet people must prepare themselves for a replay of 1930s by developing basic industry instead of consumer goods…
Winston Churchill delivered his views at Fulton, Missouri. The former prime minister exalted American power with the plea that his listeners recognize that “God has willed” the United States, not “some Communist or neo-Fascist state” to have atomic bombs. …The “iron curtain” phrase made the speech famous… Within a short period after the Churchill speech, Stalin launched a series of policies which, in retrospect, marks the spring and summer of 1946 as a milestone in the Cold War…
The Berlin blockade had its beginnings in those moments of 1945 and 1946 when the breakdown of the Four Power Allied Control Council made impossible the reunification of Germany… The Western moves were obviously designed to accept and exploit the status quo in Germany. The Soviets, however,…confronted the prospect of a revitalized West Berlin deep inside the Soviet zone.
…On June 24 the Soviets stopped all surface traffic between Berlin and the Western zones… On June 28 came the American response. Without consulting anyone but a few cabinet ministers, Truman decided…”we [are] going to stay period”.
…The United States began a massive airlift, ultimately lasting 324 days, which soon delivered 13,000 tons of supplies a day. Stalin was playing for high stakes, but so was Truman. In July he transferred to England two groups of B-29 bombers, the planes designated to carry atomic bombs. Truman’s action indicated how the monopoly of these bombs allowed the administration to balance the budget and cut back conventional army forces, yet not diminish its capacity or willingness to brandish military force. The President said that, although he prayed the bomb would not have to be used, “if it became necessary, no one need have a misgiving but what he would do so”. The evening after Truman made this remark, a meeting of leading newspaper publishers agreed that if war occurred over Berlin, the American people would expect the bomb to be dropped. Taking these words at face value, the Pentagon requested that control of the bomb be transferred from the President to the military so preparations could be made for its use. Here Truman drew the line: he did not intend “to have some dashing lieutenant colonel decide when would be the proper time to drop one”.
In the late 1970s Americans finally emerged from the crisis of Vietnam and Watergate only to confront a new Cold War. It was a conflict more dangerous and unmanageable than anything they had faced before. In the old Cold War Americans had enjoyed superior nuclear force, and unchallenged economy, strong alliances, and a trusted Imperial President to direct this incredible power against the Soviets. In the new Cold War, however, Russian forces achieved nuclear equality. Each side could only plan to destroy the other many times; the plan involved a military doctrine known as Mutual Assured Destruction, or MAD.
The Cold War
The Cold War was waged between the United States and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). They fought of a war of ideology and propaganda that resulted in the creation of nuclear arsenals still in existence that can destroy the world many times over. Some would argue that the Cold War began even before World War II ended. Already the United States and USSR were in the midst of carving up the former Axis territories when the first atomic bombs were tested in New Mexico, then used on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
Thus, the Nuclear Age and the nuclear arms race that fueled the Cold War began together. Calls by scientists and diplomats for international control and monitoring of nuclear weapons went unheeded. The Soviets developed their own atomic and hydrogen bombs shortly after the US.
In the 1950's fears in the United States of the Soviet's "war without borders" led to the House Committee on Un-American Activities attack on "Communism" in American culture. In the USSR, Stalin's iron-fisted rule and culture of intolerance led to millions of deaths.
Tensions during the Cold War sparked many critical situations including the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis when the USSR placed nuclear weapons 90 miles off the coast of Florida in Cuba. Thirteen days of teetering on the brink of nuclear war ended with a secret agreement in which the Soviets consented to take their missiles out of Cuba and the United States promised to remove their missiles from Turkey six months later.
The effects of the Cold War spread throughout the globe like the radiation clouds from the atmospheric nuclear tests in the 1940's, 1950's and 1960's. The ideologies on both sides included a vision of world dominance. In addition, the US military/industrial complex's "Domino Theory"- the fear that if one country turned Communist it would lead to their neighbors to following suit and to increased regional instability- led to many military conflicts, including the Vietnam War, funded and aided by both Superpowers.
The Cold War ended with the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and the break-up of the Soviet Union in 1991.
Putting Bioterror on the Front Burner
With the world transfixed by SARS, it’s easy to overlook an equally serious threat: bioterrorism. The recent bombing in Saudi Arabia and Morocco were chilling reminders that terrorists are still on the loose. Security experts fear that next time, they could use chemical or biological weapons. And as the still-unsolved anthrax attacks of 2001 showed, America’s arsenal of vaccines and drugs is far from adequate.
The biotech industry is stepping in to fill the void. Under the Project BioShield plan just approved by the House Energy & Commerce Committee, the federal government would spend $5.6 billion to counter bioterror threats over the next 10 years. That has inspired dozens of biotech outfits to tackle anthrax, smallpox, and other pathogens, using the latest drug-development tools and techniques.
Many companies are focusing on anthrax, for several reasons. “Weaponized” strains are known to have found their way into terrorists’ hands. And the military is desperate for an alternative to the current anthrax vaccine, which requires six injections over 18 months, as well as annual booster shots. What’s more, drugs currently used to treat anthrax victims are imperfect at best. Cipro and other antibiotics work best when they’re administered soon after exposure.
Human Genome Sciences Inc., in Rockville, Md., is one of the companies answering Washington’s call. Its antibody-based drug, called Abthrax, doesn’t target the anthrax bacteria, as antibiotics do. Instead, HGSI’s drug attacks the toxins emitted by the bugs, preventing them from entering and killing cells. It seems to work with a single dose. And, says HGSI CEO William A. Haseltine, “It may prevent and treat infections by antibiotic-resistant strains”.
San Diego’s Vical Inc. is working on an anthrax vaccine. It began by creating a chemical copy of anthrax DNA, then altering the structure. The concoction, administered in two injections, stimulates immune cells to make antibodies against anthrax – but won’t transmit the disease. In one test, 40 rabbits that were given the vaccine and then exposed to anthrax survived, while 17 that were left unvaccinated died.
The trick will be getting these treatments over the regulatory hurdles. Because human tests aren’t feasible or ethical when dealing with a disease such as anthrax, the Food & Drug Administration had no formal process for reviewing chemical or bioterror remedies – until last spring. In May, 2002, the FDA passed a regulation known as the “animal rule,” which allows drugmakers to rely heavily on animal tests in such cases. Still, biotechs will have to work closely with the FDA to determine which allows will serve as appropriate test subjects. And they’ll have to run human trails to show that their products are safe. “It isn’t a shortcut,” say Dr. Una S. Ryan, CEO of Avant immunotherapeutics of Needham, Mass., which is working on vaccines for anthrax and plague. “We have to feel our way through this process.”
The government’s desire to get bioterrorism remedies on the market is already reaping dividends. In February, the FDA approved a chemical called pyridostigmine bromide to treat soldiers exposed to the nerve gas Soman. Says Army Colonel John D. Grabenstein, deputy director for clinical operations at the Military Vaccine Agency: “It’s important to explore new advances to see how they might be applied to our existing capabilities.” The biotech industry has never been better equipped to help.
Full Text of the Speech by Pope John Paul II from the Vatican
on September 12, 2001
I cannot begin this audience without expressing my profound sorrow at the terrorist attacks which yesterday brought death and destruction to America, causing thousands of victims and injuring countless people. To the President of the United States and to all American citizens I express my heartfelt sorrow. In the face of such unspeakable horror we cannot but be deeply disturbed. I add my voice to all the voices raised in these hours to express indignant condemnation, and I strongly reiterate that the ways of violence will never lead to genuine solutions to humanity's problems.
Yesterday was a dark day in the history of humanity, a terrible affront to human dignity. After receiving the news, I followed with intense concern the developing situation, with heartfelt prayers to the Lord. How is it possible to commit acts of such savage cruelty? The human heart has depths from which schemes of unheard-of ferocity sometimes emerge, capable of destroying in a moment the normal daily life of a people.
But faith comes to our aid at these times when words seem to fail. Christ's word is the only one that can give a response to the questions which trouble our spirit. Even if the forces of darkness appear to prevail, those who believe in God know that evil and death do not have the final say. Christian hope is based on this truth; at this time our prayerful trust draws strength from it.
With deeply felt sympathy I address myself to the beloved people of the United States in this moment of distress and consternation, when the courage of so many men and women of good will is being sorely tested. In a special way I reach out to the families of the dead and the injured, and assure them of my spiritual closeness. I entrust to the mercy of the Most High the helpless victims of this tragedy, for whom I offered Mass this morning, invoking upon them eternal rest. May God give courage to the survivors; may he sustain the rescue-workers and the many volunteers who are presently making an enormous effort to cope with such an immense emergency. I ask you, dear brothers and sisters, to join me in prayer for them. Let us beg the Lord that the spiral of hatred and violence will not prevail. May the Blessed Virgin, Mother of Mercy, fill the hearts of all with wise thoughts and peaceful intentions.
Today, my heartfelt sympathy is with the American people, subjected yesterday to inhuman terrorist attacks which have taken the lives of thousands of innocent human beings and caused unspeakable sorrow in the hearts of all men and women of good will. Yesterday was indeed a dark day in our history, an appalling offence against peace, a terrible assault against human dignity.
I invite you all to join me in commending the victims of this shocking tragedy to Almighty God's eternal love.
Let us implore his comfort upon the injured, the families involved, all who are doing their utmost to rescue survivors and help those affected. I ask God to grant the American people the strength and courage they need at this time of sorrow and trial.
Prime Minister's statement to the House of Commons
following the September 11 attacks
(abridged)
14 September 2001
Mr Speaker, I am grateful that you agreed to the recall of Parliament to debate the hideous and foul events in New York, Washington and Pennsylvania that took place on Tuesday 11 September.
I thought it particularly important in view of the fact that these attacks were not just attacks upon people and buildings; nor even merely upon the USA; these were attacks on the basic democratic values in which we all believe so passionately and on the civilised world. It is therefore right that Parliament, the fount of our own democracy, makes its democratic voice heard.
… what happened in the United States on Tuesday was an act of wickedness for which there can never be justification. Whatever the cause, whatever the perversion of religious feeling, whatever the political belief, to inflict such terror on the world; to take the lives of so many innocent and defenceless men, women, and children, can never ever be justified.
Let us unite too, with the vast majority of decent people throughout the world, in sending our condolences to the government and the people of America. They are our friends and allies. We the British are a people that stand by our friends in time of need, trial and tragedy, and we do so without hesitation now…
I would like on behalf of the British people to express our admiration for the selfless bravery of the New York and American emergency services, many of whom lost their lives.
As we speak, the total death toll is still unclear, but it amounts to several thousands.
Because the World Trade Center was the home of many big financial firms, and because many of their employees are British, whoever committed these acts of terrorism will have murdered at least a hundred British citizens, maybe many more. Murder of British people in New York is no different in nature from their murder in the heart of Britain itself. In the most direct sense, therefore, we have not just an interest but an obligation to bring those responsible to account…
In this case, we are talking here about a tragedy of epoch making proportions.
And as the scale of this calamity becomes clearer, I fear that there will be many a community in our country where heart-broken families are grieving the loss of a loved one. I have asked the Secretary of State to ensure that everything they need by way of practical support for them is being done…
There are three things we must now take forward urgently.
First, we must bring to justice those responsible. Rightly, President Bush and the US Government have proceeded with care. They did not lash out. They did not strike first and think afterwards. Their very deliberation is a measure of the seriousness of their intent.
They, together with allies, will want to identify, with care, those responsible. This is a judgement that must and will be based on hard evidence.
Once that judgement is made, the appropriate action can be taken. It will be determined, it will take time, it will continue over time until this menace is properly dealt with and its machinery of terror destroyed.
But one thing should be very clear. By their acts, these terrorists and those behind them have made themselves the enemies of the civilised world.
The objective will be to bring to account those who have organised, aided, abetted and incited this act of infamy; and those that harbour or help them have a choice: either to cease their protection of our enemies; or be treated as an enemy themselves.
Secondly, this is a moment when every difference between nations, every divergence of interest, every irritant in our relations, are put to one side in one common endeavour. The world should stand together against this outrage.
NATO has already, for the first time since it was founded in 1949, invoked Article 5 and determined that this attack in America will be considered as an attack against the Alliance as a whole.
The UN Security Council on Wednesday passed a resolution which set out its readiness to take all necessary steps to combat terrorism.
From Russia, China, the EU, from Arab states, from Asia and the Americas, from every continent of the world has come united condemnation. This solidarity should be maintained and translated into support for action.
We do not yet know the exact origin of this evil. But, if, as appears likely, it is so-called Islamic fundamentalists, we know they do not speak or act for the vast majority of decent law-abiding Muslims throughout the world. I say to our Arab and Muslim friends: neither you nor Islam is responsible for this; on the contrary, we know you share our shock at this terrorism; and we ask you as friends to make common cause with us in defeating this barbarism that is totally foreign to the true spirit and teachings of Islam.
And I would add that, now more than ever, we have reason not to let the Middle East Peace Process slip still further but if at all possible to reinvigorate it and move it forward.
Thirdly, whatever the nature of the immediate response to these terrible events in America, we need to re-think dramatically the scale and nature of the action the world takes to combat terrorism.
We know a good deal about many of these terror groups. But as a world we have not been effective at dealing with them.
And of course it is difficult. We are democratic. They are not. We have respect for human life. They do not. We hold essentially liberal values. They do not. As we look into these issues it is important that we never lose sight of our basic values. But we have to understand the nature of the enemy and act accordingly…
For this form of terror knows no mercy; no pity, and it knows no boundaries.
And let us make this reflection. A week ago, anyone suggesting terrorists would kill thousands of innocent people in downtown New York would have been dismissed as alarmist. It happened. We know that these groups are fanatics, capable of killing without discrimination. The limits on the numbers they kill and their methods of killing are not governed by morality. The limits are only practical or technical. We know, that they would, if they could, go further and use chemical or biological or even nuclear weapons of mass destruction. We know, also, that there are groups or people, occasionally states, who trade the technology and capability for such weapons.
It is time this trade was exposed, disrupted, and stamped out. We have been warned by the events of 11 September. We should act on the warning… We need to mourn the dead; and then act to protect the living.
Terrorism has taken on a new and frightening aspect.
The people perpetrating it wear the ultimate badge of the fanatic: they are prepared to commit suicide in pursuit of their beliefs.
Our beliefs are the very opposite of the fanatics. We believe in reason, democracy and tolerance.
These beliefs are the foundation of our civilised world. They are enduring, they have served us well and as history has shown we have been prepared to fight, when necessary to defend them. But the fanatics should know: we hold these beliefs every bit as strongly as they hold theirs. Now is the time to show it.
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Кувшинова Екатерина Евгеньевна,
Луговская Зоя Константиновна
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